Is the Nuclear Family Universal

Is the nuclear family universal? This essay will explore whether the nuclear family is in fact a universal sociological institution. The term ‘universal' means applicable to all cases, so, for this to be correct the nuclear family must be found in all families in every society. Nuclear family consist a husband and wife and one or more children, own or adopted, it is defined by Murdock and according to him, he believed that the nuclear family is ‘a universal social grouping. ‘ Functionalist George Murdock suggested an idea of universality of the family as family is the basic and vital institution in all societies.He looked at 250 societies and found four the most significant functions of the family: sexual, economic, reproduction and socialization. These functions are essential and meet needs in all societies and institution who best fits in performing them is family. Murdock defined the family as social group characterized by common residence, consisting of adults o f both sexes and dependant children. There are statistics that suggest the diversity of families is developing, such as cohabiting, single-parent and reconstituted homosexual families. All evidences seem to prove that nuclear family is not the dominant type of family.However, living in a nuclear family is a phase that most people, as children and adults, go through in the course of their life. The Government seems to be more preferable to nuclear family, as the nuclear family can be a nurturing environment in which to raise children as long as there is love, time spent with children, emotional support, low stress, and a stable economic environment. So, although there is an increasing diversity of family, nuclear family is still universal. The nuclear family is promoted by politicians and media. For example, Labour policy Supporting Families (1998) suggested different ways of all types of families.However Labours also pointed out that preferred type will be nuclear. Media created â⠂¬Ëœcereal packet image’ of the family where it was promoting ideal nuclear family. People being influenced by media and politicians start seeing other types of households undesirable or abnormal. However there is an opposing view to Murdock’s theory that goes against the idea of the nuclear family being universal. In 1959, Kathleen Gough provided a detailed insight of the Nayar society. This culture was mainly centred on the woman and known as a matrifocal family. In this society, when the woman reaches puberty, she is married to her Tali husband.This is a sacred and traditional marriage but although they are married by law the husband and wife have no obligations to each other, the woman is then allowed to take on up to 12 visiting Sandbanhan husbands who must come after tea and the stay the night and leave before breakfast the next morning. Husbands and wives didn’t form an economic unit. Also, husbands were not expected to maintain the wives and it was frown ed upon to do so. Moreover, he didn’t bond, look after or socialize with the children. Another opposing view of the universal nuclear family is the IK culture.This tribe lives in Africa were each member shows now emotional connection with one another. Family, to them, means very little and each member of that society fends for themselves, showing no maternal instincts. If a new baby shows signs of weakness and disability, it will be disowned into the wilderness. The same happens to an elderly member who has no ‘purpose’ in the society. The experience and lifestyle of the IK suggests that family life across the world is characterised by diversity. However, in the UK definitions are dominated by the nuclear family.However, there is a lot of support for Murdock’s theory of the universal nuclear family. One argument is that statistically, the female-headed family is not the norm either within black communities or in the societies in which they are set. Also, s ome sociologists believe that the mainstream model of the nuclear family is valued by blacks and regarded as the ideal. However, there are many opposing views to his theory. The supposed harmful effects on the children of the matrifocal family are far from proven, and, we know that children from a nuclear family are sometimes abused or neglected.Looking closely at all the evidence I have explored in this essay, I conclude to find that the nuclear family is not universal. Families are simply groupings of people brought together by blood, marriage or some kind of connection. By looking at groups such as the Nayar society and the IK culture, it shows that the nuclear family is not applicable in all circumstances. Finally, in British culture the times are changing and there is a more diverse range of families in our society today.

Robert and the Dog

Language was born as an instrument to communicate people, to convey messages in many ways. According to the evolution of human beings, their language has been an evolution too and during this process literature emerged with an artistic interest to express feelings, thoughts and their imagination. But, what is literature? Many theorists have tried to explain that, and we have some patterns that are typical in their texts. In the text â€Å"Robert and the dog† by Ken Saro-Wiwa you can find some of this patterns such as the human being view, the disposition to analyze stories and the literature as an aesthetic object. To begin with, the first example is the concept of man that is given by the text. This is not about the generic male or female description is about the type of person in it. In the text we can see a men that is coward, insecure and with thirst of power. You can recognize this by the description of the character in the development of the story: the thirst of power is seen in â€Å"And he always repaired there nightly to exercise authority over his wife and six children. (Saro-Wiwa, 1) the insecurity in â€Å"Robert began to feel like a human being† (Saro-Wiwa ,page 3) and the cowardice in â€Å"He gathered up all the tins of dog food, all the tins of milk, tethered the dog to the settee and walked off, out of the house and the job he had loved to do. † (Saro-Wiwa, page 5). In these cases we can see that the author invites to get into the feelings of the character, giving a description of it. This is a clear example of a literary text, because by this he is describing a man that is typical in the actual lower classes. On the second case we can see the disposition to analyze the story. The author has a particular way to describe the principal character feelings about the dog. He shows us by a image what â€Å"Robert† thinks: â€Å"And when he got home in the evening and saw his children, with distended stomachs, gamboling in the filth that simmered in a swollen stream at his door, and watched them hungrily swallow small balls of eba, he asked himself, ‘Who born dog? † Saro-Wiwa, page 3) This description is not literal; you have to deduce it, according to the text. The author is trying to transmit to the audience the comparison that â€Å"Robert† is making with the dog, but not by words, instead he is using a shocking image of his children eating like dogs. That is were literature is present, in the way of telling and describing the thoughts of the character. In any other text the comparison is literal, but not in literature. On the last example we analyze the literature a s an aesthetic object. Literature, as a written representation of art, has to follow the basic concepts of aesthetic and, among others, there is the connection between its form and it’s content to make it beautiful. So, in the analyzed story this relation is present; the form of the text uses the language beyond the importance of giving a message, it makes it alter the grammar in order to give emphasis and sound to the text: â€Å"She ensured that he was well fed with tinned food and milk and meat and bones. (Saro-Wiwa, page 3) The word â€Å"and† is used too many times, and that grammatically it is incorrect, but in literature it is not a problem. The repetition of the word â€Å"and† is a way to explain that the dog has more than Robert, and this shows that â€Å"Robert† it is prisoner of his jealousy and his thirst of power. The language and the message, the content and form make this story a work of art that traps the lectors and transmites one of the worst parts of the human being. So, to sum up the text â€Å"Robert and the Dog† by Ken Saro-Wiwa is a literary piece, because of its form and content, the way of the language is used and the message that it contains. A non literary piece of writing is less emotional, and everything is literal, you do not have to conclude anything, but in this text the author uses a very particular way of explaining the feelings and thoughts of the principal character, using the aesthetic as a way for you to interpret every situation that he goes through. Also the vision of human being that is showed in this text, reflect that is a literary piece, because the author describes a men with a poor economical situation, but he never says it, you know that just for de description. On the last the use of a shocking image makes you think about how he sees his own life. So if you connect these three reasons you can see that in a literary text the most important parts of the writing are the ones that are not written; what you can infer, the moral that leaves you and the feelings of each person, and at the end that is what every work of art wants, it is the purest purpose of literature.

Maintaining a Healthy Home Holistically

Martina Westcott Hsoc 259 April 21, 2010 Maintaining a Healthy Home Holistically: Natural Household Products as Safe Alternatives to Conventional Products â€Å"If you want to learn about the health of a population, look at the air they breathe, the water they drink, and the places where they live. † -Hippocrates, Father of Medicine, 5th Century BC Natural household products are an important part of maintaining health holistically. From day to day, what is ingested, inhaled, and introduced into our bodies has effects on levels of function and the state of our health.We spend up to 57 percent of our lives indoors, so it is beneficial to make sure that indoor environments are safe havens to raise healthy children. [1] High levels of exposure to harmful fumes and aromas produced by conventional cleaning products play a role in increasing rates of asthma, especially in young children. Conventional cleaning products contain harsh chemicals that are irritating to both the skin and b ody. Asthma cannot be cured, but by removing triggers in the home, this condition can be treated and patients can rely less on biomedicine to control symptoms.Two main symptom aggravators for asthmatic patients are bioallergens and chemical irritants. [2] Natural cleaning products can be helpful in removing both from the home. By removing allergens and synthetic chemicals from the home environment, good health is maintained. Perspectives taken from current consumers of natural cleaning products reveal an understanding of the environment as a point of access to a wealth of resources that can serve to alleviate symptoms and enhance one’s quality of life. The efficacy of these products is revealed in personal accounts.Moreso today than ever before, it is crucial to regard the body as a precious vessel and treat it as such. In doing so, some are beginning to relate to the environment in a new way, valuing responsibility to the environment as much as responsibility for their own b odies. By engaging in a reciprocal relationship with the environment, humans live in harmony with their surroundings and preserve nature’s healing powers. Melaleuca, Inc, the Shaklee Corporation, and the Rainbow Company are three institutions that pledge to protect the health of consumers and our environment through increasing accessibility to natural cleaning products.What are Natural Household Products? Natural cleaning products contain components from the earth as primary constituents, such as oils, herbs, or naturally- occurring chemical compounds. These products do not harm the environment and do not introduce foreign chemicals into the body. Therefore, natural cleaning products are typically non- irritating to the skin and eyes and far more gentle than harsh chemical cleansers. In the context of this paper, just because something is ‘natural’ doesn’t mean it is less toxic, or non- irritating all the time.Even cleaners that are safe enough to eat, lik e lemon juice, can be irritating to the eyes or skin. Consumers should make decisions based on reading the ingredient list for themselves, identifying any ingredients that may be toxic, and then deciding whether to use that product in the home. There are several labels approved by the FDA that one can use to identify whether or not a product is organic, or in other words, natural. If a product is labeled â€Å"100% organic† all of the ingredients used must be natural.If a product is labeled simply â€Å"organic,† it at least 95 percent of its ingredients are organically produced. Finally, if a product is labeled â€Å"made with organic ingredients,† it must contain at least 70 percent organic contents. The first ingredient on any label is found in the product in greatest quantity, therefore it may be convenient to simply identify this ingredient. Many products are mostly water. Therefore, the first ingredient can provide a clue to the potency of the natural ingr edient within the product of your choice. 3] Not all natural cleaning products are equal. Like all products used in the home, especially around children, it is necessary to research ingredients or subscribe to a company that pledges to provide pure products. For instance, the Melaleuca Company adheres to the established Australian standard that requires marketed Melaleuca oil to have a minimum of thirty- five percent Terpinen and a maximum of ten- percent Cineole, the two main chemical components of the natural oil, which ensures that the product is as pure as possible. [4] The Shaklee Corporation, another ompany that promotes natural products, maintains a Scientific Advisory Board of medical professionals and scientists who regularly check the purity of products and make sure EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) standards are met. [5] These are features of companies that have created transparency for consumers to identify exactly where their products are coming from and can be tru sted to provide pure products for the home. Why Worry About the Environment? Do you know what impacts the quality of your health? [pic] www. ahha. org We are our environment.Health does not end at the skin. Everything we do, from the food we eat to the air we breathe, affects our health. In this diagram produced by the American Holistic Health Association, the environment is shown to impact health in an even stronger capacity than medical care. While one may visit the doctor’s office once or twice annually, we spend countless hours indoors in the course of our lives. Therefore the quality of the environment cannot be separated from one’s state of health. Natural household products holistically maintain health because they do not harm the environment.Unnatural, genetically engineered chemicals used in the environment have been shown to harm the body. In a study conducted at the University of Nebraska Medical Center, evidence was found linking organochlorine exposure and thyroid disease in women. Organochlorine is an insecticide used in planting. The study compared female farmers in Iowa and North Carolina who had been exposed to the compound on a regular basis to those who were not in regular contact with the chemical. Analysis of results showed that â€Å"there was an increased odds of hypothyroidism with use of organochlorine insecticides of 12. %†[6] This study reveals the bodily harm that can be incurred just by touching chemically altered compounds and using them on a daily basis. This is not to mention the potential dangers of ingesting these chemicals in food products. As we keep the environment pure, we also keep our bodies pure. In indigenous cultures, all products used in the home came directly from the earth itself. Indigenous Perspectives of Holism Using natural cleaning products parallels the use of holistic healthcare. Indigenous peoples believed that human beings are one with the earth, and this assertion is found in all form s of Shamanistic practice.Each of us is deeply connected with the Earth’s ecosystems. In a book entitled Ecological Medicine: Healing the Earth, Healing Ourselves the author writes, â€Å"By restoring the earth, we restore ourselves†[7] Biologically, the human body is composed of the same elements that constitute the land like carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen. When we die, our bodies return to the earth and begin the cycle of life anew. The Bible reads, â€Å"Dust thou art, and unto dust thou shalt return. †[8] Human life comprises just one small portion of the cycle of life.Cultures that participated in Shamanistic traditions like the Native Americans, for instance, understood this cycle of life. The notion of using the most valuable herbs the earth has to offer in personal care regimens is not one of recent invention. Native Americans have used plants and herbs grown by hand for anywhere between 10,000 and 30,000 years. [9] The spiritual understanding of a life cy cle that the earth is intimately connected to human beings is the underlying basis for providing optimal care and respect for the land, which will ultimately offer up a harvest to care for the individual in turn.Such an understanding â€Å"is awareness that life in any environment is viable only when humans view the life that surrounds them as kin. †[10] This phenomenon, which professor of Anthropology Enrique Salmon calls â€Å"ecological kinship† is a unique feature of Native American culture and other Shamanistic belief systems that has produced a deep appreciation for the land, one that the Melaleuca Company echoes in promotion of natural products that do not harm the earth upon disposal as some harsh chemicals may.Native Americans have traditionally â€Å"viewed human beings not as some higher intellectual being above lower animal and inanimate beings but as a kindred partner in the universe, reliant on the other beings in creation for life itself. †[11] Th is fundamental interdependence is necessary to an understanding of holistic healthcare as more than care for the body, but also care for the environment, which can be considered the temple that houses our bodies. Other Native American groups have similar understandings of the cyclic nature of life and death as it relates to the environment.In Cherokee culture, the medicine wheel, which symbolizes the â€Å"wheel of life†[12] represents a series of stages through which living beings pass associated with seasons and the alignment of the cosmos. The wheel does not have to be tangible; it can be spiritually understood as present during ceremonial rituals. The term â€Å"medicine† wheel may be understood in American culture if biomedicine is the immediate connection one identifies because the concept is quite spiritual in Native culture. The medicine wheel is a healing cycle that includes the environment as a source of healing and strength. As Dr.Tieraona Low Dog puts it el oquently, â€Å"plants aren’t pills, they’re seeds. †[13] In indigenous cultures, plants have intrinsic healing properties simply from being alive. These healing powers are all- natural and unaltered by man, preserved only in the purity of nature. This is true in all indigenous belief systems. For Native Americans and other indigenous groups, health is a balance between human outputs and inputs and those of the physical body of land. It is an alignment that is achieved through respect for the earth, an absence of exploitation in terms of resource extraction, and an embracing of nature.In a physical sense, balance is achieved by respecting the land. In a spiritual sense, balance is achieved by using the wheel symbolically in ceremonial practices and rituals to align oneself with climate patterns, deities, etc. For instance, in certain Cherokee ceremonies, tribes march around a central fire in a counter- clockwise direction because this is believed to be pleasing to the divine. According to Jutlia Atli, a member of the Cherokee tribe, â€Å"We are created by, balanced between, and destroyed by the primary forces represented on the Wheel. [14] The wheel includes seven sacred directions which correspond to environmental elements and seasons as well as colors and times of day. The seven directions are also representative of various characters, such as humility, change, death, and impermanence. These examples demonstrate the creation and existence of the human being as only a small part of an extensive universal system of life that is all inclusive, a substratum of physical and spiritual interconnection that strings together all beings as one. This holistic view of life is one that we can reclaim today.Like a flickering flame, human life is only a brief glimpse of the extensive life present on the earth at any given point in time, a humbling acceptance that can truly change one’s perspective. Natural Medicine Indigenous peoples used what was available to them in their immediate environments, typically herbs, roots, or seeds that grew from the soil, in healing. These natural elements were the body’s first medicines. Modern pharmaceuticals introduce chemicals that have often been genetically engineered in the laboratory into our bodies.When the body does not recognize a drug, the immune system is designed to combat that foreign substance. Prescriptions cannot simply target one symptom because the body is a set of extensive systems that work in harmony to maintain homeostasis. Any pill ingested must travel through the entire system and could potentially harm organs or tissues that were not the intended target of the treatment. Therefore, it is better to use natural treatments that are not so unfamiliar to the body to maintain good health.Holistic practitioners like those who practice homeopathy utilize naturally occurring remedies to restore health such as herbs. A homeopathic physician, Dr. Linda Baker utilize s natural herbs every day in her practice and also maintains an allergen- free, chemical- free environment in her office for patients. [15] Her concern for creating a natural setting for her homeopathic practice speaks to recreating the natural environment indoors to maintain health holistically. She subscribes to the Shaklee Corporation, a company that produces natural products for the home and office.Natural Household Products Today: Drawing on the Past to Protect Our Future Three major companies involved in producing natural cleaning products for sale presently are the Shaklee Corporation, the Rainbow Company, and Melaleuca Inc. A brief overview of the services offered by these companies will provide insight into the transforming views of how to maintain a healthy home environment. All companies promoting natural cleaning products share the same basic goal, and that is promoting health holistically by offering alternatives to harsh chemicals that can harm the body and the environ ment.These companies look to indigenous cultures for philosophy and ingredients. The Shaklee Corporation has been operating since 1960. It is one of the pioneer companies to promote natural cleaning products and biodegradable containers for household products. Their mission statement nicely sums some of the ideas presented in this paper. This is the Shaklee pledge: â€Å"We make products from the purest natural ingredients. And we take stringent measures to keep out pesticides, contaminants, and other unnatural things that simply don't belong there.But just as important as what we take from nature is what we don't take. †[16] Shaklee set the standard for many similar companies that would follow. Melaleuca, Inc. was founded by Frank VanderSloot in 1995. The overarching goals of the company are to provide consumers with natural alternatives to chemically based cleaning products, healing supplements, medications, and even beauty products. By working in concert with the environme nt, the Melaleuca Company has brought to the forefront natural remedies that have been used for centuries in other cultures.For instance, the pioneer product and namesake of this innovative company was melaleuca oil, also known as tea tree oil. This oil is a natural compound taken from an Australian plant which is considered â€Å"a useful dermatological with antibacterial, antiviral, and antifungal properties. †[17] Tea tree oil is used in a wide range of products sold by the company, including toothpaste, mouthwash, soap, as well as its most basic form as pure oil. Tea tree oil was used among Australian aborigines who realized the healing power of the extract upon experimentation.Within that culture, â€Å"freshly crushed leaves were applied directly to an injury, and then held in place with a mud pack†[18] and healing was accelerated. They named the herb bungawalbyn, which means â€Å"healing ground† in the native language. [19] Today, tea tree oil is used to treat conditions like acne, eczema, psoriasis, dandruff, and athlete’s foot. It is found within a whole host of natural cleaning products, from teas to acne medications. This company is one of many that have successfully brought this ancient herb back to the forefront of health consciousness and natural remedies for common ailments.The Melaleuca Company functions through word- of- mouth dissemination of consumer based advice and success with products. One of the company’s slogans, â€Å"We’re telling about Melaleuca, not selling it†[20] speaks to this feature of promoting the products. Customers are exposed to Melaleuca through informational sessions held within the homes of current users who are given instructional materials to conduct the sessions themselves with other friends. As a wellness company, the Melaleuca brand promotes a holistic focus on the entire individual’s overall wellbeing and daily satisfaction with bodily function.Testimonies shared during informational sessions are typically centered on personal experience with the product, from health improvements seen after using natural cleaning products as in the case of Ms. Hensen, to the practical efficacy of maintaining a healthy lifestyle without harming the environment. While Melaleuca promotes a whole host of natural products, from lotions to cleaners, other companies focus on improving the efficacy and the environmentally- friendly standard of a particular household appliance such as the vacuum.The Rainbow Cleaning System line produces vacuum cleaners that use a water filtration system to collect dirt and allergens picked up instead of traditional bags that can harbor a host of dust mites and other bacteria lifted from carpets during vacuuming. The idea of cleaning one’s home is the goal to remove dirt, but some conventional vacuum cleaners only spread dirt and dust mites as one empties filters and bags. Rainbow technology uses a water basin to trap al lergens in a fluid that can be easily disposed in the proper receptacle, either bagged and thrown in the trash or flushed down the toilet.The innovative system also allows customers to add natural components to the water basin prior to vacuuming, such as lemon or orange peels, to fragrance the home naturally as you vacuum. This pragmatic system can be helpful for those who are sensitive to dust and other irritants, especially asthmatic children and adults. Conventional Household Products Pollute the Body Asthma is a condition that affects a large portion of the U. S. population and it is especially prevalent among young children. An average of one out of every 13 school-aged children or nine million US children under age 18 have been diagnosed with asthma. It’s the most common chronic childhood disease in the developed world and has become even more commonplace in the last three decades. †[21] Furthermore, in the US, the prevalence of asthma increased 75% from 1980-1994 . [22] An increasingly toxic home environment may play a key role in the development of asthma and the severity of symptoms.A 2004 study published in the New England Journal of Medicine revealed the harmful effects of environmental irritants in amplifying asthma- related symptoms. The study, which followed 937 children living in high- risk homes in seven major cities, found that a reduction of irritants within the home served to decrease asthma- related morbidity rates. [23] Children who were exposed to fewer allergens within the home through stringent cleaning practices experienced less symptoms of asthma including wheezing and coughing. They could also play for more extended periods of time because their symptoms were alleviated.This study reveals the fundamental connection between health and environment, one that companies promoting natural cleaning products hope to make prominent in American consumer culture. The Melaleuca Company promotes maintaining a healthy home. In a chapte r of the Melaleuca Wellness Guide entitled â€Å"Is Your Home a Healthy Home? † John K. Beaulieu exposes the harms that can be unwittingly imposed on one’s family through the use of toxic chemicals in household products. Some alarming statistics are presented as evidence of these harms.For instance, â€Å"a product that kills 50% of lab animals through ingestion or inhalation can still receive the federal regulatory designation ‘non-toxic’†[24] Throughout the article, a number of products used in almost every household in the United States are listed as containing cancer-causing agents and chemicals that can irritate respiratory pathways or skin. One chemical that is common in many household products, formaldehyde, which is also used to preserve human and animal bodies for dissection, is described as capable of causing â€Å"spasms, edema of the larynx and bronchi, and chemical pneumonitis†[25] upon inhalation.Formaldehyde is found in common brands of bubble bath, baby shampoo, hair spray, and other personal care products and, like dust and allergens, has also been linked to childhood asthma. In an article published in the Environmental Health Perspectives Journal entitled â€Å"Formaldehyde Exposure and Asthma in Children: A Systematic Review,† literature reviews of recently published studies provided quantitative evidence of a strong association between formaldehyde in the home environment and increasing rates of asthma among children.Specifically, â€Å"when compared with individuals with no formaldehyde exposure, those with the highest levels of exposure reported in the seven studies (i. e. , 80  µg/m3) would have 3. 5-times higher odds of asthma. †[26] One study examined in this report focused on formaldehyde exposure among infants from birth to two years of age, a critical window where exposure to formaldehyde can have long- lasting effects due to the â€Å"small caliber of their airways†[27 ] and found an even stronger positive association with asthma for these children later in life.Therefore, it is imperative that families keep their homes pure in terms of products used to clean furniture and floors, especially in children’s rooms. Some links to chemical and asthma remain unclear. For instance, a study in Sweden identified yet another harmful agent found in many household items, phthalate compounds. Phthalates are compounds that are used in conventional tupper- ware plastic containers as well as moisturizers, nail polish, and vinyl flooring. These compounds are ubiquitous in most American homes as well and leach out of products into the air. â€Å"Global phthalate production is 3. million tons per year†[28] and this figure is rising every year. The Swedish study concluded that â€Å"house dust containing [phthalates]†¦is associated with higher rates of asthma. †[29] The study included Swedish children who were exposed to phthalate- containin g products in the home. However, a reverse causation factor has been considered by the American Chemistry Council, which suggests that it is yet to be determined whether the presence of the phthalate compounds ultimately leads to asthma or if the phthalate-containing products brought into the home to combat asthma only further aggravate symptoms.Both situations may be contributing factors to worsening symptoms. The example used is the practice of replacing carpets with vinyl flooring to reduce allergens, which is often a response to asthma because parents are aware of the dust mites carpeting can harbor within the home. Perhaps the Rainbow Cleaning System would work well for these families! Although this particular connection remains unclear, other chemical compounds like formaldehyde have been linked to asthma with high levels of certainty.The preventive benefits of using natural cleaning systems in the home prevail. Evidence suggests that conventional cleaning products cause illne ss; this is especially important for children. During the interview, Ms. Hensen discussed the health benefits of using natural household products within her own family in depth. With regard to the benefits of using Melaleuca products, she asserted wholeheartedly that her â€Å"family’s health had improved greatly since the introduction of Melaleuca cleaning products and supplements to the household. Her teenage son has suffered with severe asthma since birth and his condition was often aggravated by strongly scented detergents and other harsh chemical products, including household bleach and ammonia- based cleaners. She revealed that he had missed almost two months of school over the course of his freshman year of high school due to asthma complications despite her best efforts to keep the house clear of irritants like dust and pesticides. When a friend suggested Melaleuca, Ms. Hensen was eager to explore the option.Her first product was MelaPower ©, a melaleuca oil- based detergent. Within weeks, she found that her son was not experiencing the same sense of airway irritation as he had with other brands of detergent. She then added Sol-U-Mel ©, a multi-use cleaning solution that she uses throughout the home in cleaning floors, appliances, and large areas such as kitchen and living room floors. These products are part of the EcoSense line of natural cleaning products. Because Sol-U-Mel © solution is sold in concentrated form, it is long- lasting through several uses.She especially enjoys the versatility of uses for one product she has encountered using Melaleuca. Sol- U- Mel © is just one example of such products that can be used almost anywhere in the home. Her son has not had an asthma attack since she switched to Melaleuca products eight years ago. Now a law school student at Temple University, he uses the products in his own home. When asked how he feels since his mom first introduced him to Melaleuca products, he responds that â€Å"Melale uca changed his life. † He attributes his renewed ease of breathing to Melaleuca in large part. Ms.Hensen’s personal testimony does not suggest that Melaleuca products are â€Å"miracle solutions† to a whole host of health problems, but it does reveal the efficacy that consumers seek when deciding on a purchase. Her experience reveals a vital tenet of natural, holistic healthcare methods, which is, â€Å"In the wisdom of nature lies the solutions† to all of the ailments faced by humankind today. [30] We are not at a loss for natural cures because the environment has just as many rich resources for promoting health as it always has. It is simply our responsibility to take advantage of those resources.Using natural cleaning products is the first step for many families, especially among those who are aware of the potential dangers of conventional products. One example is antiperspirant, a widely used product in almost every American home. Many antiperspirants contain aluminum, a chemical element that has been linked to breast cancer in several studies. While there is no general consensus on the long- term effects of antiperspirant use, several studies have shown a positive association between regular application and tumors in the breast.One such study was conducted in 2002, entitled â€Å"Aluminum, Antiperspirants, and Breast Cancer. † The study reveals the toxicity of the element and its possible interactions with breast tissue over long- term exposure: â€Å"Aluminium is known to have a genotoxic profile, capable of causing both DNA alterations and epigenetic effects, and this would be consistent with a potential role in breast cancer if such effects occurred in breast cells†[31] While the connection between aluminum and breast cancer remains highly debated and continues to draw researchers, there are several chemicals that have been notably proven harmful to the body.The long- term effects of using chemical elements lik e aluminum, phthalates, and formaldehyde have been well- documented. However, a recent study by Ramon et al. identifies the short- term effects of constant exposure to conventional cleaning products in the hospitality industry among female housekeepers. [32] In the study, a control group of 43 domestic workers who had been diagnosed with either asthma or obstructive lung disease were instructed to keep diaries of symptoms associated with their conditions, from difficulty breathing to asthma attacks at different points during the day.The workers recorded the severity of seven symptoms that had been selected by the panel of researchers at different points during the day. The study concluded that exposure to traditional cleaning products, among them bleach- containing products, aggravates lower respiratory tract symptoms among domestic workers. Although this study was conducted in Spain where the pool of participants was localized, these results indicate that conventional cleaning prod ucts are not only damaging to the health of children but also to adults. Harsh irritants found in traditional cleaning products like bleach are dangerous to both the body and the environment.Conventional Household Products Pollute the Environment Humans are only as healthy as their habitats. Therefore, by polluting the environment, we poison ourselves. Conventional cleaning products pollute the environment and our bodies. By poisoning the environment, we poison ourselves. Environmental security, which can be understood as the capacity of humans to live harmoniously with nature or to maintain a sustainable environment is inextricably linked with human security. This is why it is crucial to make careful decisions about the purity of household products.In an interview with Jim Quigley, founder of Healthy Spaces, a company that aims to help local Philadelphia and Bucks County families create healthier homes and workplaces, the interconnection between environmental health and bodily func tion was made clear. He described an incident in which a man with severe allergies called in to have an evaluation of his work space hoping to identify a major environmental trigger that could be removed to ease his symptoms. He had been taking Claritin every day, three times per day on his worst days, and was very distracted by his allergy symptoms.Jim went into evaluate the office and made shocking observations as he engaged in conversation with the man and completed the formal checklist he uses in every evaluation. The first visual observation was an easy one. He immediately identified wall-to-wall carpeting in the office that had not been vacuumed in a number of months, a rich source of dust mites and bacteria. The second was the wall paper, which he determined contained volatile organic compounds (VOCs) upon taking a sample and evaluating it in the laboratory. Both formaldehyde, the dangers of which have been discussed, and xylene were found in the wallpaper.The man was functio ning from day to day in a very hazardous environment, and Jim advised him to remove the carpet, remove the wallpaper, and use paint with a natural base to see if his health improved. In a matter of days, the man’s symptoms were alleviated to the point of no longer needing even one dose of Claritin in the course of a day. By returning the office environment to a more natural state, he was able to return his body to a more natural state of functioning as well by coming off of his pharmaceutical medication.Several companies are making a healthy environment a priority in their marketing strategies. [33] Melaleuca Inc. is an example of one company that is making strides to protect the environment. The biodegradable nature of most Melaleuca products and containers ensures that the environment will not be harmed through proper disposal. This is one of the extra steps the brand makes to protect the natural habitat in which we all must live, which adds sustainable value to the product s.Because the products in Melaleuca’s cleaning line Eco Sense are concentrated, they can be diluted with water instead of packed with chemical fillers to enhance performance. Also, the concentrated nature of the products allows packaging in smaller containers, which allows for less waste. This is a feature that customers like Ms. Hensen truly appreciate. She asserts that she is personally committed to preserving the environment and this was one of the main features that first drew her to the company. In her own words, she is â€Å"really concerned with protecting the environment in any way [she] can. [34] The commitment to preserving the environment is a part of the Melaleuca promise because the founders understand that the earth provides benefits that require a sense of respect for the environment, a mutually beneficial partnership between consumers and this universal habitat. All companies providing natural household products make a similar pledge to protecting the environ ment. Natural Household Products: The Best Choice for Your Home and Health Natural cleaning products provide safe alternatives to harmful chemicals found in many traditional products, from bleach to furniture polish.Considering that we spend up to 57 percent of our lives indoors, it is beneficial to make sure that indoor environments are safe havens to raise healthy children. At present, many environmental factors are responsible for the increase in the number of allergic and autoimmune diseases, and evidence provided supports the hypothesis that this increase may be caused by the widespread chemical contamination of the environment. Several chemicals, like formaldehyde and phthalates in the home have been linked to rising rates of asthma among young people, but consumers are not left hopeless. The goal is not to live in fear of the world around us.Rather, it is to embrace the fruits of the earth and bring nature into the home environment. Bacteria and dust mites were some of the fi rst organisms to appear on the planet, and these tiny organisms will not be disappearing anytime soon. All companies promoting natural cleaning products share the same basic goal, and that is promoting health holistically by offering alternatives to harsh chemicals that can harm the body and the environment. Perhaps the reemergence of indigenous practices is evidence that we are beginning to remember that we are just one part of an unending cycle of life- we are nature.Therefore, the environments we occupy are inseparable from our own holistic wellbeing. Just as some are choosing natural products for healing rather than pharmaceuticals to stimulate the body’s own innate ability to heal, people are looking for more natural products to surround themselves in the home. If the body is a temple of the soul, then the home is the temple of the body, and the environment encapsulates it all. There are no divisions among these components. The earth’s natural elements have worked synergistically with our own bodily systems for thousands of years. Isn’t that the best seal of approval?

The Industrial Revolution in Europe Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

The Industrial Revolution in Europe - Essay Example (Richard and Gianni 1991, 2) The industrial revolution in the nineteenth century brought technological developments in all fields. Apart from that, it also played a great part in breaking the shackles of several barriers which were destroying the lives of several people for more than two centuries. Poverty, caste bias, financial depression, unemployment, ignorance all were crumbled down with the growth of new technologies and innovations from several people. (Richard and Gianni 1991, 2) It all started in Britain and continued to spread to other European countries with the economy prospering like never before and with unbelievable progress in science and technology. It started during the end of 18th century and reached impeccable heights during the 19th century. The changes cascaded to other fields too starting from manufacturing, transport and even to agriculture. Britain first brought out a change in the animal like work load placed on the humans by machinating every production and thereby increasing the employment rather than workload. This was followed with building of roadways, railways and canals. The birth of power fuelled by coal and other power generating materials doubled the rate at which the economy was growing and continued to spread across Europe and other parts of the world. (Richard and Gianni 1991, 2) Impact on 19th century history: As one could expect, the industrial revolution had enormous impact on the events happened in the society and as a result became an integral part of what the history of 19th century has turned out to be. Autocracy was brought down slowly and democracy came into existence. Market economy was brought into everyone's attention and surged to be biggest head turner. The revolution started slowly but steadily and gathered momentum as it progressed, finally turning to be an irreversible one. It entirely changed how people lived, their way of work and most of all, brought in a sense of security into everyone's life. (Richard and Gianni 1991, 2) Just like any action having both positive and negative to it, the nationalism and race of people grew together along with the industries. In fact, these two paradigms had such an impact that they too grew to become the basis for all the wars, humanitarian depressions and the sheet of barrier that stood up for so many years between the different countries of Europe. Since the revolution happened in stages and at different times in different countries of Europe, it further fuelled the cold war between the nations that were already separated by caste, creed, culture and language. (Richard and Gianni 1991, 2) A sense of whom being the superior rose in the minds of several countries leaders leading to damage the uniform development which was happening throughout the world, especially in Europe. This resulted in some countries becoming superior compared to others leaving them in a negligible state, offering themselves to be conquered. Though the current conditions are not so the way it was at that time, the leaders of that era failed to recognize this long term transformation leading to the several economic disasters and mind boggling wars, destroying lives all over the world. What, where, when, how and why industrial revolu

Form post Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Form post - Essay Example Felix awakens from his naà ¯ve reverie to a complete grasp of his harsh reality. Nandi serves as a metaphor for the painful but necessary process of remembrance (Vimeo 2:43). Butler differentiates gender from sex, which nowadays many do not agree with. Nandi take her position to survey the bloody land after the brutal massacre and destruction. She makes Felix who is a man in a foreign country aware of what is happening in his homeland. She thinks here as a man though a woman. Butler state that individuals build their culture upon people they meet, education and living condition experienced. Nandi works alone in the harsh environment and takes the part of men culturally not to let the memories fade away. On contrary, Staurt describes cultural study as relationship between different culture and politics theoretically. Kentrige studies the South African past political events. He starts from the brutal killings and mass destruction to when there is first election. This displays transformation though the memories were still there for remembrance. Nandi a woman used as the surveyor to help cover all visible evidence of the past, portrays

Introduction to Economics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Introduction to Economics - Essay Example Francis enjoys an absolute advantage. Why would there be an advantage to turning either task over to Phil and specializing? The answer comes from the Ricardo Theory that was put forth by the 19th century economist David Ricardo (The history of economic thought n.d.). The theory addresses the problem of comparative advantage. As can be seen from the table the cost of a phone call for Phil (.125 statements) is less than the cost of a call for Francis (.2 statements). However, the cost of a statement for Phil is 8 calls, but for Francis it is only 5 calls. Francis can produce a statement for fewer resources than Phil, and Phil can produce a call for less than Francis. They should therefore specialize. Phil should answer the phone and Francis should do the financial statements. This study was undertaken to analyze the effect that demand has on the US real estate market. The project studied the housing costs in 6 major cities. It was theorized that three factors; Demand, Area Income, and Value would affect housing. By evaluating the median housing price, the median incomes, and the housing available at the median price we were able to show the influence of demand. It was found that area income had no effect on housing cost. Likewise, we found that the higher cost areas provided less housing than the lower cost areas. The study concluded that the market was almost exclusively demand driven. The 6 major cities that are listed on the graph in Figure 1 display their median housing cost. It ranged from a high in San Francisco CA of $726,700 to a low in Austin TX of $170,900. The other 4 cities, New York, Boston, Seattle, and Chicago fell in the middle. If there were an increase in cost is due to higher local area wages, it would be expected that all cities would spend about the same percentage of their wages for housing. However, the graph, indicated by Relative % of income, shows that people in San Francisco spend a proportion of their

Promoting Jordan as a cultural destination being the only open air Research Paper

Promoting Jordan as a cultural destination being the only open air museum in the world - Research Paper Example I have once again proven this to myself when I visited Jordan and attended a concert for Mohammed Assaf, winner of Arab Idol, and Farah Yousef at Amman citadel on the 28th of August 2013. More than 3,000 people witnessed the dazzling, heartfelt performance of Mohammed Assaf. However, the tremendous success of the event would not be possible without the fervent support and ingenuity of the show’s organizer—the Friends of the Jordan Festivals. The Friends of the Jordan Festivals (FJF) was formed by individuals and groups that possess a deep-seated passion for culture and the arts, and are committed to the goal of making Jordan the topnotch cultural destination in the world. FJF organizes a variety of cultural events for a varied mix of entertainment audiences. Besides satisfying local tastes for culture and arts, FJF aspires to create globally renowned entertainment products. The unending commitment of FJF to the success of Jordan in tourism and cultural promotion is reve aled in its triumphant organization of major cultural events, such as the 2010 Jordan Festival, the Cirque du Soleil, Saltimbanco Show, Cirque de Glace, and the Evolution Show. And on July 2013, FJF publicized the opening of the Amman Citadel Festival for this year. The Festival showed off the finest artists of Jordan and other Middle Eastern countries. It seems that FJF thought that the festival has to be hosted with several big names, like Julio Iglesias, Marcel Khalife, and Khaled Salim, to draw the attention of audiences all over the world; but in reality Jordan is perhaps most rightfully positioned to act as a meeting point between the Middle East and the rest of the world. Isam Salfiti, Chairman of FJF, expressed their unwavering commitment to the country’s cultural tourism sector: â€Å"We look forward to helping enhance Jordan’s touristic appeal, as we believe that the Kingdom has all the makings of a world class destination†. This latest announcement of FJF has been distributed by Bidaya Corporate Communication, which is a regional public relations agency and regional event organizer. Because of its exceptional ability to satisfy the demands of its diverse clientele, Bidaya has become the favorite associate of leading local, regional, and global organizations. Bidaya Corporate Communications helps NGOs, like FJF, to stage the most successful cultural and historic events in the country. More notably, His Majesty King Abdullah II has committed to the goal of enriching Jordan’s cultural and artistic scenery. His Majesty aims to transform Jordan into a first-class economic and touristic destination. As part of His Majesty’s national tourism strategy, he commissioned Zaha Hadid Architects in 2010 to create the most exquisite design for a new performing arts center that will be built in Amman. Envisioned as a venue for performance, studying, mentoring, and rehearsing, the King Abdullah II House of Culture & Art was visuali zed to be the leading site for education, artistic and cultural performance in Jordan. It is His Majesty’s belief that through this initiative he would succeed in promoting the country’s great potential in tourism and in bringing together all its citizens in the collective experience of history, culture, and the arts. Derived from the Royal idea of a self-sufficient historical restoration organization in Jordan, His Majesty also ordered in 2010 the creation of the Jordan Heritage Revival Company (JHRC).

Strategic Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Strategic Management - Essay Example 1-13). The different strategies are analyzed and their sustainability evaluated. Also, recommendations and justification are given for other relevant strategies. Discussion The Samsung Electronics has been involved in accumulation of knowledge over the last few decades. However, the company is facing tough competition from other companies. The increase in the overseas production has impacted on the strategic response in Korea. The production network in Samsung extends beyond the ASEAN region through to China and India. Ration of the overseas production to the total production has in the recent years increased sharply. The competition is intense towards the cost-driven struggle for the low-end markets (Leachman & Jeenyoung 2002, p. 61-77). The three major electronics producers in Korea; Samsung, Daewoo and Goldstar, have expressed their intention in increasing the overseas production. By early 1990s, the Samsung Electronics performed an organization integration meant to increase the c oordination between the marketing, production and research across and within the product lines. By 1992, the multiple product sectors were fully under the control of Kim Kwang Ho, who was the CEO and the head of the semiconductor operation. The company started initiating more radical reforms by mid 1993 who improved the dissemination of knowledge within the group. The semi-conductor sector enhanced the technological synergy in other related businesses. For instance, the production of the DRAM technology led to the precision of the Samsung electronics leading to significant improvement in technology. The product design capability is an important strategy by Samsung to enhance the internationalization of production where the low-value-added goods were produced while new products prevented hollowing out of production in Korea. The increased changes of the competition conditions increased the difficulties in foreign licensing and the designs turned out to be very complex. Samsung began acquiring some new capabilities through direct acquisition of foreign firms. The R&D operations in Samsung have been continually centralized Samsung Electronics had strategized on the release of new devices to expand the line-up based on the conditions in the market. This was to prevent overreliance on the android Platform from Google. This sought for the reduction of dependency on Android (Bong & Jinjoo 2004, p. 16). The company produces TFT monitors with the corporate customers being in mind. This strategy necessitates an approach where the company identifies potential markets among the business users whose employees have a high likelihood of spending long hours on a computer screen. The company also targets other markets such as the high street shops that use TFTs for the point of sale terminals. The company uses the radical market strategy to encourage high purchases of their products. The head office in Korea has played a crucial role in introducing strong brand awareness as we ll as instilling good product perceptions. Assessing the sustainability of this strategy, the company has been able to realize high profiles as well as creating high profile for their brand (Chung & Karen 2009, p. 20-27). Samsung Electronics is relatively new in mobile communications. Having established in CDMA markets in Korea and USA, Samsung has decided to incorporate global

Sierra Leone and Child Soldiers during the Civil War Research Paper - 1

Sierra Leone and Child Soldiers during the Civil War - Research Paper Example Lightweight assault weapons increased these children’s lethality while others participated in politically motivated, though unstructured, violence like planting bombs or hurling rocks. While the use of child soldiers is a widespread phenomenon in global conflicts, the case of Sierra Leone was the first case that received widespread media coverage. The issue of child soldiers in Sierra Leone defied gender boundaries with girls joining military drills and activities. Girls made up at least 25% of the rebels in Sierra Leone’s Civil War with typical sexual victimization being rampant as they were forced to service soldiers with sex (Williams 80). This had an especially negative impact on their lives as they were found to be unsuitable for marriage since they were considered impure. Because of desperation, most of them became prostitutes to earn a living. Most child soldiers in Sierra Leone were enlisted through coercion; forced recruitment and mandatory conscription. Whenever the rebels had a shortfall in numbers, they found it convenient to ignore birth dates with no birth records used, except to find out the tribal allegiance of a particular conscript. In fact, even the government turned to the use of child soldiers to counter their use by the rebels. A child who stood as tall as a rifle was considered eligible for consc ription into the army. Village headmen were instructed, by local authorities, to provide a specified number of Sierra Leoneans with children being easier to find and conscript (Williams 81). Some militias in Sierra Leone abducted the children, especially from schools, at gunpoint. Surrounding a school, they would arrest children without explanation and herd them to the forest for training. In other areas, armed militia surrounded public spaces like marketplaces and ordered its occupants to sit before trucking away anyone found â€Å"eligible† for service (Maclure & Myriam 120). Those who were most at risk were teenage boys

Diabetes level 6 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Diabetes level 6 - Essay Example When a person has the type 2 diabetes, the best therapy that is usually offered is the provision of oral therapy that consist of injection of insulin in order to make the blood attain the targeted glycemic levels. In addition, a person suffering from diabetes usually suffers from macrovascular and microvascular diseases. The most prominent microvascular disease amongst this group is the diabetic neuropathy that in most cases leads to the amputation of the lower limbs. It is also worth noting that a patient suffering from type 2 diabetes usually increases his chances of morbidity and therefore it is recommended that the person stops the smoking habit. This paper has four sections that includes a review of how to diagnose and manage a patient suffering from type 2 diabetes, the microvascular disease in type 2 diabetic patients, pharmacological management of such a patient and the effect of smoking and how to stop it. Thereafter a conclusion is made on the whole paper. Type 2 diabetes occurs when there is insufficient production of hormone insulin leading to high levels of glucose in the body. Therefore, the people with type 2 diabetes often require regular monitoring and reviewing of their treatment through changes in lifestyles, self-care measures and the use of the diabetes medicines. In the diabetes review, the first line of thought would be to find out the efficacy of the metformin as the first-line pharmacotherapy in the patient with the type 2 diabetes. Metformin is the first line oral antihyperglycemic drug that should always be used in patients with type 2 diabetes when it is difficult to attain glycemic control through changes in the lifestyle of the patient (McIntosh et al. 2011, p. 36). Therefore, the first question that the nurse must find out from the type 2 diabetes patient is the type of lifestyle that she lives and how often she smokes and evaluates whether this

Kant's Miscarriage of All Philosophical Trials in Theodicy Essay

Kant's Miscarriage of All Philosophical Trials in Theodicy - Essay Example This paper presents a critique of the Miscarriage of All Philosophical Trials in Theodicy. In his essay, Kant starts by stating that the occurrence of sin on earth disrupts three main attributes of an almighty God.   Kent questions all efforts to think against the question of evil in the essay. In this essay he looks at the holiness of God, secondly, he looks at God’s goodness as a ruler, and God as a judge. These are the major questions in this essay. In the essay, he argued that great intelligence could not be comprehended by an individual’s thought because he perceives it to be higher (Firestone and Palmquist, 2006). According to him, he was right because an individual cannot comprehend supersensible objects within the environment (Firestone and Palmquist, 2006).   From the essay, this cannot be said to be a justification. Therefore, individuals cannot justify God, and they need to understand that thought cannot give accurate responses to God’s justifications.In the essay, there is nothing as counter-purposiveness, which are individual laws that violet human rights. An individual cannot stand for the truth he or she says. However, an individual must always stand for the truth of God’s holiness. It’s this holiness that guides an individual’s consciousness.      In his essay, Kant claims that a human being is only good so long as he or she stays away from sins and deception, or any form of individual deception. He used this thought following individual consciences, because when one behaves without sin he, or she is a good individual. This is challenging because it does not answer the question of holiness. Kant only talks about an individual tendency to deception, and not an individual’s pure reason.  

Discuss research relating to bystander behaviour Essay Example for Free

Discuss research relating to bystander behaviour Essay The murder of Kitty Genovese and the bystander behaviour that was apparent that night triggered a great deal of research to explain bystander behaviour. Latane Darley suspected that the fact that the number of possible helpers was so large might actually have contributed to their lack of intervention. They processes that might explain the reluctance of others to get involved in situations such as the Kitty Genovese incident. The Diffusion of Responsibility explanation suggests that the more witnesses there are to a person needing help, the less anyone witness feels responsible for giving help. Latane Darley conducted a lab based experiment using male university students seated in individual cubicles connected by an intercom system, believing they had come to take part in a discussion on collage life. Students were lead to believe they were on their own, alone with one other participant who would later appear to have an epileptic seizure, or an increasing number of other participants. Help was less likely and slower to be given when participants believed that other potential helpers were available. The findings from this study support the notion of diffusion of responsibility as, as suggested the more witness there were to the victim needing help, the less the participant felt a sloe responsibility to help. Participants assumed that his intervention would not be necessary, as confederates would have taken care of the situation. However, it could be argued that as the experiment was lab based it holds no ecological validity, and therefore the results cannot be generalised to real life situations. Participants reluctance to help may have been caused by an attempt to avoid social disapproval (e. g. being the odd one out), or they may also have picked up demand characteristics from experimenters or other confederates as to the true nature of the experiment and felt they needed to supply the experimenters with the results they required. Latane Draley also proposed the Pluralistic Ignorance theory. This hypothesis suggests that when making a decision about whether or not to help, we look to see what other bystanders are doing. If other bystanders appear to act as if the situation is an emergency situation and help the victim, we are likely to do the same. If no one else offers to help we are unlikely to offer help as well. In the smoke filled room experiment participants were invited to take part in what they thought was a psychological experiment. While waiting for it to begin they were asked to fill out a questionnaire in a waiting room that is filled with smoke. In the first condition they were in the room on theyre own, and then in a variety of conditions including an increasing number of confederates, who acted like it was not an emergency situation. When on their own participants seeked help 100% of the time, but as the number of people present increased, participants remained seated and acted like it was not an emergency situation (mirroring the confederates behaviour). This strongly supports the idea of pluralistic ignorance as they were looking to confederates for guidance on how to shape their own behaviour. Again this was a lab-based experiment and therefore it lacks ecological validity. As a result of Latane Darleys research, Piliavin conducted a field in a New York subway, where a stooge collapsed in a variety of conditions (black stooges that looked ill, white stooge that appeared to be drunk and visa versa), with other experimenters observing commuters behaviour. If the victim appeared to be ill they were helped much more frequently than if they appeared to be drunk. The colour of the victim made no difference to the frequency of help they received. This real life study demonstrates that personal characteristics of the victim appear to play a more important part in whether to be a bystander or not. This study is much higher in ecological validity than those conducted by Latane Darley as it was conducted in a real-life situation. Most of the above research has been carried out in the USA. The dominant approach in the USA is based on self-interest, rather than concern for others. There is evidence that this selfish approach is not dominant in other cultures, e. g. a study by Whiting Whiting found large differences in the prevalence of altruistic behaviour form one culture to another. Darley said in 1991; in the United States, and perhaps in all advanced societies, it is generally accepted that the true and basic motive of human action is self-interest.

The Real White Mans Burden Irony and Symbolism

The Real White Mans Burden Irony and Symbolism I aim to evaluate the use of irony and symbol in the poems The White Mans Burden and the Real White Mans Burden to see how effective both writers were in using these elements to convey meanings. In the case of Kipling, I will consider two points of views. The first point of view is that Kipling was an imperialist who supports the take over of other governments to show superiority. The second point of view is that Kipling was an imperialist who supports the take over of other governments as an act of humanity to bring civilization to the uncivilized and, that he warns of the perils of showing superiority as oppose to bringing true liberation. In the case of Crosby, since he presents a single view point, I will evaluate his effectiveness of using irony and symbolism in parodying the work of Kipling. Effectively used, irony and symbol could convey a message with more than one meaning as demonstrated in Rudyard Kiplings poem The White Mans Burden or, they could convey a single message de monstrated in Ernest H. Crosbys poem The Real White Mans Burden. In the final analysis, I submit that the effective use of the elements of poetry, in this case, irony and symbol, are vital to the correct interpretation and understanding of the meaning of both poems. In order to establish a well-rounded understanding of the basis for the two interpretations of Kiplings work and the single interpretation of the work of Crosby, I submit definitions for the terms imperialism, irony, and symbol. These definitions will also serve to show whether or not there was effectiveness in the use of the elements of poetry, in both poems. As defined by Dictionary.Com: Imperialism is the policy of extending the rule or authority of an empire or nation over foreign countries, or of acquiring and holding colonies and dependencies. Irony is the discrepancy between what is said, done, expected or intended, and what is meant, what happens, and what others understand. Satirical irony is the exposure of the vices or follies of an individual, a group, an institution, an idea, a society, usually with a view to correct the folly. Symbol is anything that stands for something else. (Dictionary.Com) Having establishing the definitions, I will now analyze the use of irony and symbols in Ruyard Kiplings poem. While Kipling uses both irony and symbols, his use of irony is greater. Kiplings expertly uses irony to bring about the intended end result of two opposing perspectives as to whether imperialism is for human good or elitist gain. In the first view point, Kipling uses the poem The White Mans Burden to encourage America to take over the Phillipines imperialistically or, for elitist gain. Kipling writes: Take up the White mans burden / Send forth the best ye breed / Go bind your sons in exile / To serve your captives need; (1-4) The first observation of the poem is Kiplings decision to call the poem The White Mans Burden. Undoubtedly, the use of the phrase White Man is the lightening rod that sparks the view that Kiplings position was that of an imperialist having at its core the tenets of Social Darwinism. According to Kretchner, the concept of Social Darwinism purports that natural order obligates powerful, civilized nations to appropriate the limited resources of the weak. (Kretchmar) Hence, Kiplings urging of America to assist the Phillipines to reach civilization may be interpreted as him supporting the imperialistic movement. Even further, Kiplings encouragement that the empire should send forth the best ye breed has very strong racial connotations. During that time in history, blacks were not considered as equals to whites in America. The unequal treatment of blacks was so prevalent in Americas economic, political, and social systems that James Weldon Johnson, writes Lift Every Voice and Sing also known as the Black National Anthem, to encourage black people to sing and march until victory is won. This cry for equality continues in 1968, with Martin Luther King still only having a dream of equality. Though, in 2008, Barrack Obama becomes the first black President, there still remains the cry for true equality. In addition to the charges to Take up White Mans burden / Send forth the best ye breed(1-2), Kiplings use of phrases such as To veil the threat of terror / And check the show of pride. (11-12) asserts that the Empire must do what is necessary to eliminate resistance and to subdue insurrections against Imperialism. Not only should the Empire silence the voices of the captives, but she must also limit or remove any signs of pride that they might muster. Further, Kiplings characterizations of the people as On fluttered folk and wild / New caught- sullen peoples, / Half-devil and half-child. (6-8) may be easily construed as connatively condescending. Kipling seems to imply that the empire must be prepared to reinforce her stance By open speech and simple / A hundred times make plain (13-14). Kiplings distinction of the empire seem to be lofty in its tone. By marrying the symbols of the captives as being inferior people to the santimonious responsibility of the Empire to bring civility to the uncivilized, one can conclude that Kipling supports that the Empire is superior and hence has the responsibility to bring civility to the uncivilized. Ironically, the same body of work that interpretively champions the Empire as being superior to the captives, implores the empire to be fair and complete in its liberation of the captives. The second point of view to the work of Kipling in the The White Mans Burden is 4that he advocates for the fair treatment of the captives. Kiplings urging of the empire to liberate the captives and to take care of their needs can be found throughout his poem. According to Bonamy Dobree, while speaking to Canadians in 1907, Kipling said: I have, I confess it now, done my best for about twenty years to make all men of  the sister nations within the Empire interested in each other. Because I know that at heart all our men are pretty much alike, in that they have the same aspirations, and when all is said and done we have only each other to depend upon. (Dobree 80) Kipling demonstrates a view consistent to those who believe that true liberation is not oppressive. For example, he writes: Take up the White Mans burden / The savage wars of peace- / Fill full the mouth of Famine / And bid the sickness cease; (17-20) Further, Kipling warns the Empire that all of its actions or inactions, all that it say or not say will help to determine how the captives view the Empire and its God. Here is what Kipling says: By all ye cry or whisper, / By all ye leave or do, / The silent, sullen peoples / Shall weigh your gods and you. (45-48) In addition to how the captives view the Empire and its God, Kipling writes that other countries and future generations will also look at the treatment of the captives and judge the Empire. Kipling goes on to tell the empire not to celebrate its victory or relish in the praise, since these acts are childish, but that the Empire should be more concern with how the work would be judged by the Empires peers for years to come.To encapsulate the view that Kipling wanted the Empire to bring civilization without showing superiority, his closing verse from the poem is submitted. Kipling writes: Take up the White Mans burden / Have done with childish days / The lightly preferred laurel, / The easy, ungrudged praise. / Comes now, to search your manhood / Through all the thankless years / Cold. Edged with dear-bought wisdom, / The judgment of your peers! (49-56) These words clearly indicate that Kipling encourage the Empire to be honorable in its dealings with the Natives. Contrary to the school of thought that Kipling advocates civilization with true liberation, is Crosbys position that the Empire uses blessings as a doorway to go in and take away the true riches of the people and in exchange gives them an oppressive life style. Unlike Kiplings rendering of his poem, The White Mans Burden where he shows his trust for the Empire, Crosby in his parody The Real White Mans Burden, blatantly shows his mistrust of the Empire. Most importantly, though he employs heavy use of irony and symbols to demonstrate his opposing view of the Empire, Crosby does not dillute the single message of his poem. First, Crosbys title of the poem is a clear indicator of his dissent from Kiplings views. He uses the term White Man to solidify the object of his remarks, but, he goes further by using the word Real which ironically implies that there is a masking of the truth. Crosbys title speaks strongly of his judgment against the Empire. Historically, his point of view is drawn from his experiences as a social activist and as a black man living in America at the time of the Spanish American War. According to an essay by Andrew Hebard, Crosbys position on Imperialism mirrors that of Amy Kaplan who says imperialism is as a network of power relations that changes over space and time and is riddled with instability, ambiguity, and disorder, rather than as a monolithic system of domination that the very word empire implies. (Hebard) Next, are observations of the blending of symbol and irony used by Crosby to demonstrate his view of the Empire. Crosby believes that the motive of the Empire is ill-willed. He also believes that their chaiotic sytems bring failure, and the Empire dangle proverbial carrots in exchange for far more valuable gains. Crosbys position is that the eventual outcome of imperialism will be social, economical, and political oppression. At this time, a detailed look at Crosbys use of irony and symbols to depict the social climate that prevailed in America, the climate which he opposed to being introduced to the Natives, is warranted. Crosby asserts: Take up the White Mans burden; / Send forth your sturdy sons, / And load them down with whisky / And Testaments and guns. (1-4) Ironically, these lines subliminally say that the drinking of whiskey mask the truth, since it is widely known that people who consume too much alcohol are not as cognitively aware as they should be and, therefore, not able to think correctly are apt to believe anything told to them. Further, being loaded down with whiskey causes a usually sturdy person to stagger, and even fall. More overtly though, is the fact that Testament represents truth and wholesomeness, and guns represent power and destruction. But, because the minds are altered with alcohol, the masking of the real motive is easily perpetrated. There is a strong possibility that the soldiers will introduce the social ill of alcoholism to the natives, and will also help to spread propoganda about the good of imperialisim thereby causing the natives to become drunk and misinformed. The abililty of the natives to think reasonably correct about their condition will be diminished. To further support his view of social failure and to show that the Empire thinks that the Natives have limited information and can be easily captured if not military, certainly they can be captured through the spread of socially communicable diseases. Crosby writes: Throw in a few diseases / to spread in tropic climes, / For there the healthy niggers / Are quite behind the times. (5-8) Crosby bolsters his position of social oppression by saying: Give them electrocution chairs, / And prisons too, galore, / And if they seem inclined to kick, / Then spill their heathen gore. (21-24) The symbols of electrocution chairs, prisons, and gore ironically speaks of death both physically and mentally. Physically speaking, there is the death of the person whether by electrocution, or the spilling of the blood. Then, there is death of having freedom of space, since prisons limit movement. While subtle, based on Crosbys account, the intention to kill the dreams of the natives, screams from the pages of history. Crosby knows from his experience, that if any form of resistance, whether through word or action, is shown, if any attempt to pursue any dreams, ideologies, or customs that threatens the goals of the Empire is made, that the Empire would by any means necessary, ensure that the pursuit of those dreams was deferred and dry up like A Raisins in the Sun. (Diyanni 1870 ) In addition to social oppression, Crosby purports that the Natives will be opressed economically through hard labor as well as through the Empires system of taxation and debt. The view point of oppresive labor is aptly projected through the use of irony. Crosby claims: And dont forget the factories. / on those benighted shores / They have no cheerful iron mills / Nor eke departmemnt stores / They never work twelve hours a day, / And live in strange content. (9-14) Through his masterful use of irony, Crosby argues that the natives, who did not work as long hours as did the Americans, were very content with what little they thought they had. However, the bigger issue for Crosby appears to be that Empire knew that the natives were actually very successful and wealthy and sought to make them believe that their way of life was inadequate, and to turn them from being owners of the land to laborers in the land so that the Empire may be expanded. (A perfect combination of imperialism and colonialism!) Even more indicative of his stance against economic oppression, Crosby decried the imposing of taxation and debt. He writes: Take up the White Mans burden, / And teach the Phillipines / What interest and taxes are / and what a mortgage means. (17-20) Again, in Crosbys minds eye, there is the irony of a people who are successful in their simple but, independent way of life who being militarily inferior are consequently forced to become failures by their dependence on a monstrous financial system. In a final attempt to show the fallacy of the Empire, Crosby highlights the political climate that the Empire embraces. He pens: They need our labor question, too, / And politics and fraud. / Weve made a pretty mess at home; / Lets make a mess abroad. (25 -28) The irony in these lines humorously evaluate the endeavor of the Empire to fix anothers problem, when it cannot solve its own problems. In a nutshell, Crosby believes that Imperialism is a preposterous veiled attempt to cloak greed in kind deeds by using methods that are disfunctional. In summarizing his single message of the failure and hypocrisy of the Empire, Crosby does three things. First he mocks what the Empire regards as a valiant mission, Next, he shows the unparrarel trade that the Empire wants, and then, he addresses the faà §ade of the scripting of the mission that the Empire prefer to be written in the annals of history. The use of satirical irony and symbols are well armoured vehicles to deliver these points. Crosby declares: Take up the White Mans burden; / to you who thus succeed / In civilizing savage hordes / They owe a debt, indeed; (33 -36) Crosby questions the validity of the mission. He goes on to weigh the exchange between the Empire and the Natives. He adds: Concessions, pensions, salaries, / And priviledge and right, / with outstretched hands you raised to bless / Grab everything in sight. (37 -40). In terms of irony, not only is there a contrast between how much is given verses how much is taken, but, also of what is given verses what is taken. The natives receive a few limited handouts like agreements, benefits, and paychecks and, in exchange the Empire takes ownership of the natives land and naturual resources. Interpretively, Crosby demostrates this transaction as a falling leap by going from owning to owing; which is very much an uneven trade. Finally, he attacks the hypocrisy of using the art of writing to distort the issue and hide the true motive of the Empire. It is necessary to present the catalog of words Crosby uses to expose what he views as being socially, economically, and politically incorrect . Crosby concludes: Take up the White Mans burden, / And if your write in verse, / Flatter your Nations vices, / And strive to make them worse. / Then learn that if with pious words / you ornament each phrase, / In a world of canting hypocrites / This kind of business pays. (41 48) Fittingly, Crosby uses satirical irony to reveal the true motive of the insincere enthusiam that Crosby believes Kipling is showing for the Empires high ideals of pious goodness. Crosby is successful in presenting the single viewpoint of the Empires greed disguised as bringing civility to the uncivilized. In conclusion, the expert use of irony and symbol by both Kipling and Crosby prove to be excellent conveyors of the poets messages. Kiplings use of irony and symbol brillantly delivered two very contradictory positions. He lauds Imperialism by advocating that it is the responsibility of civilized nations to help to bring civilization to underdeveloped nations. He also decries the pride of thinking to be superior and being unfair to people perceived to be less finanically fortunate, not as socially advanced, and not as politically savvy. Like Kipling, Crosby employs irony and symbols to deliver his solo message. Crosbys message is that the Empire is hypocrital in its motive and that the gist of what they really wanted to do was camoflagued by missions to humanity, and described as helping to bring civilization to the uncivilized. Clearly, the poets use of irony and symbol shaped the understanding and interpretation of the poems intended meanings. The use of Irony and Symbol was so wel l executed, there remains no argument as to the value of these elements in both poems.

Nitrification Process in Landfill Leachate Treatment

Nitrification Process in Landfill Leachate Treatment CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Overview Landfilling is one of the oldest and common methods used for waste disposal. It is perceived as the most economical and environmentally acceptable technique. It is a complex system with physical, chemical, and biological processes. While undergoing the process of wastes degradation, there is the production of highly contaminating liquid, leachate, and polluting gases. If discharged in an uncontrolled and non-engineered manner, leachate will contaminate groundwater bodies and subsequently jeopardizing the ecosystem. There is a network for the collection the contaminants. The gases such as methane and carbon dioxide are flared before they can affect the atmosphere. The leachate generated, requires treatment before discharge and it is the main problem. In Mauritius, there has been an upsurge in the amount of wastes generated due to rapid industrialization. A structure for solid waste management was necessitated which resulted in the construction of Mare Chicose Sanitary Landfill Site. Over the years, there has been an increase the volume of wastes being disposed and consequently, a rise in the amount of leachate generated. As previously mentioned, the polluting liquid requires treatment prior to disposal. Nowadays, we do have laws that are regulated by the Wastewater Management Authority Act and the organization operates under the aegis of the Ministry of Public Utilities. After treatment leachate shall comply with the standard limits for effluent discharge as shown in Appendix C. Many studies have been carried out for the treatment of leachate and various methods are available. There are several parameters that define the treatment method. The treating technique shall be efficient, cost-effective with minimum input, flexible and if possible usage of the effluent. Aim and Objectives The aim of the project is the study of the nitrification process in the treatment of landfill leachate. The project had the following objectives set: To determine the suitability and efficiency of a SBR and co treatment method for the treatment of landfill leachate. To find the concentration at which ammonia nitrogen is toxic to microorganisms. To design a suitable tank for the method being adopted. To assess the cost-effectiveness of the treating system Structure of Thesis The remainder of this thesis is organized as follows: Chapter 2: gives a brief overview of landfilling process, describing the various components of a landfill. There is a description of the Mare Chicose Sanitary Landfill Site and a summary of typical leachate effluent. Chapter 3: deals with the treating options available for wastewater treatment particularly leachate. The efficiency for ammonia nitrogen removal is outlined and a reviewing some case studies on biological treatment of landfill leachate. Chapter 4: describes the methodology adopted for leachate treatment. Chapter 5: gives a detailed analysis of the results obtained and assessment of various parameters. Chapter 6: consists of the design a treating system for leachate. Chapter 7: describes the cost effectiveness of the treatment methods and some recommendations for improvement of the designs. CHAPTER 2 REVIEW of LITERATURE 2.1. Landfill A landfill may be defined as a physical facility used for the disposal of residual solid wastes in the surface soils of the earth (Tchobanoglous et al.). Nowadays, the term sanitary landfill is more usually utilized to describe an engineered facility, designed, operated and monitored with the foremost objective of reducing environmental and health hazards. According to Tchobanoglous, a landfill may be categorized with respect to the incoming waste materials. There are various criteria that are considered before the design and construction phases. The site cannot be close to water bodies, highways, any residential areas or even airports. The main reason is the pollution accompanied by the operation of such a site which will eventually disturb its surrounding environment. Another factor is the hydrogeology of the site, groundwater maps are prepared by studying the different soil stratum. This helps in determining the permeability of the soil, the depth to groundwater, the direction of groundwater flow and hydraulic gradients. If clay is to be used as a liner, then borrow sources are found. Landfill Components Liner: It is a barrier that will prevent the leachate and other liquids from penetrating the soil. It can be made of clay, synthetic materials or both which is known as composite liner. This barrier also restricts the underground migration of landfill gases. Cap system: Usually a soil cover placed over the landfill at completion of filling, also known as final cover, with vegetation grown over it. The cover may consist of geosynthetic materials also, thus hindering the escape of landfill gases to the air and restricting the infiltration of rain into the landfill (Bagchi, 1994). Gas management system: As shown in the diagram above, these are a series of gas wells that removes methane and other decomposition gases from the landfill for flaring and reuse. The methane gas may be used in the electricity production. Leachate management system: A number of horizontal and vertical pipes placed just above the liner that drains and collects leachate. Afterwards the polluting liquid may be brought to a retention pond. Mare Chicose Sanitary Landfill Site Over the last few years, a rapid development at socio-economic levels has brought an upsurge in the amount of wastes generated in Mauritius. There was a need for an integrated solid waste management programme. The Mare Chicose Sanitary Landfill is the only waste disposal site for Mauritius till date. The site is located in the southern part of the island near a small village called Cluny. It receives mostly municipal solid wastes and therefore categorized as a Class à Ã‚ ¨ type. The site was previously operated by STAM Ltà ©e, from 1997 to 2006, and presently by Sotravic Limità ©e/ Bilfinger-Berger consortium. The amount of wastes disposed at the landfill has nearly tripled over the years, reaching to a daily value of about 1,200 tonnes. The percentage of incoming wastes is summarized below: The field capacity of the landfill was already attained and currently there is an extension of works on existing cells. The site is comprised of six cells and actually the fifth one is in use. Prior to disposal at the landfill, the wastes are compacted at transfer stations. The wastes are dumped from a tipping point and soon, they are spread over existing wastes by means of specialized vehicles. At the end of the day, a cover is placed to reduce the amount of windblown debris. Both clayey and geosynthetic liners were used on the site. The amount of leachate being carted away for the period of January 2007 December 2007 is 110 858 m3. Actually, no leachate treatment is being carried out. Among the landfill gases produced methane is the most dangerous and it is dealt with in a controlled environment. The gas is being collected by means of pipelines and subsequently flared. Leachate The definition according to EPA is as follows; â€Å"Water that collects contaminants as it trickles through wastes, pesticides or fertilizers. Leaching may occur in farming areas, feedlots, and landfills, and may result in hazardous substances entering surface water, ground water, or soil.† Leachate can be described as a highly contaminated liquid, containing a considerable amount of dissolved and suspended solids that has percolated down through wastes. The leachate quality varies throughout the operational life of a landfill and long after its closure. There are three broad and overlapping phases of waste decomposition, in which chemical and biological processes give rise to both landfill gas and leachate during and beyond the active life of the site (Carville et al.). Phase 1: Oxygen present in the wastes is rapidly consumed by aerobic decomposition. This phase has duration of less than one month and is normally relatively unimportant in terms of leachate quality. This phase is exothermic and high temperatures may be produced. If some of this heat is retained, then as a result of that the rate of the upcoming phases is increased. Phase 2: Anaerobic digestion is comprised of the following four phases; Hydrolysis: A chemical reaction where large polymers are converted to simple monomers. Acidogenesis: A biological reaction where the monomers are converted to volatile fatty acids. Acetogenesis: A biological reaction where the fatty acids are converted into hydrogen, carbon dioxide and acetic acid. Methanogenesis: The acetic acid is converted into acetates. Hydrogen is used up to convert the acetates into methane and carbon dioxide. Anaerobic and facultative microorganisms hydrolyze cellulose and other putrescible materials such as complex carbohydrates, fats and proteins to soluble organic compounds. These hydrolysis products are then fermented during acidogenesis to various intermediates such as volatile fatty acids and alcohols. Finally, these intermediates are converted during acetogenesis to acetic acid, carbon dioxide and hydrogen. The high content of putrescible material in the waste may sustain acidogenic conditions for quite some time and provide a rich feed stock for methanogens subsequently. Leachate from this acidic phase typically contains a high concentration of free fatty acids. It therefore has low pH of 5 or 6, and will dissolve other components of the wastes, such as the alkaline earths and heavy metals, which can be mobilized in the leachate, possibly as fatty acid complexes. The leachate also contains high concentrations of ammoniacal nitrogen and has both a high organic carbon concentration and a biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). Phase 3: Conditions become more anaerobic as waste degradation proceeds and methanogenic bacteria gradually become established. These start to consume the simple organic compounds, producing a mixture of carbon dioxide and methane that is released as landfill gas. The carbon dioxide tends to dissolve producing the very high bicarbonate concentrations typical of Phase 3 leachates. The rate at which this phase becomes established is controlled by a number of factors, including the content of readily putrescible waste. Since the majority of the organic compounds are high molecular weight humic and fulvic acids, the leachates are characterized by relatively low BOD values. Ammoniacal nitrogen continues to be released by areas of the waste where phase 2 is continuing and generally remains at high concentrations in the leachate. Falling redox potential immobilizes many metals as sulphides in the waste. (Source: www.wikipedia.com/leachate) Typical leachate effluent Leachate is usually termed as a high strength wastewater. The polluting liquid has a high concentration of contaminants and varies throughout the landfill age as shown in the table below. From the above table, it noticed that leachates are normally alkaline having a pH of 6.0-8.4. The average COD value is found to be 5000 mg/l and the ammoniacal nitrogen remains within a similar range 900-3000 mg/L for all most of the sites. As it has been portrayed, the leachate does not meet the requirements for discharge either in sewers or surface water (see Appendix C) and this clearly indicates a need for treatment. CHAPTER 3 Treatment Options Overview Most landfills operate their own onsite leachate pretreatment and treatment facilities. Three types of treatment are possible physical, chemical and biological. Usually they are used in conjunction with one another. The constituents of leachate and availability of resources determine the treatment method to be adopted. Therefore, it should be efficient, flexible and an economical option. The leachate quality is highly dependent on the waste materials being disposed and the stage of their anaerobic decomposition. Hence, there is a variation in the constituents concentration. It has been observed that throughout the life cycle of a landfill, the ammonia nitrogen concentration remains very high. Amongst several usual parameters, ammonia nitrogen is a key one as it influences the selection and the design of the treating system. Physical Treatment Ammonia Stripping Ammonia can be removed by the air stripping technique which consists of blowing air through the wastewater. The method is based on the following equation; The above equation is highly dependent on the pH so that an exchange of ionic forms can take place. The equilibrium constant for this reaction is 10-9.25 at 18 ° C (Sorensen, 1993). pH = 9.25 + log [NH3] / [NH4+] From the above equation a pH greater than 10 is needed for releasing the ammonia gas. At normal temperature only 2% of the gas is liberated and therefore the wastewater should be heated to increase the efficiency of the treatment process. In achieving relatively low effluent values of ammoniacal-N (e.g. Reverse Osmosis The process consists of applying a pressure to the wastewater, i.e. the leachate, which passes through a semi permeable membrane. The water molecules present in the wastewater will pass the membrane forming the permeate and the contaminants remaining are the concentrate. The main advantage of using such a system is the removal of non-biodegradable compounds such as residual COD, heavy metals and chloride ions together with other large molecules present in leachate. The concentrate produced is a major issue as it is highly toxic to the environment. It is usually recirculated in the landfill or disposed off-site for storage. The removal rate of the contaminants is usually greater than 99.6 %. The plant is usually operated in more than one stage and occupies less space when compared to other treating systems. The process is currently in use in several countries such as France, Germany and Holland (IPCC, 2007). Activated Carbon Adsorption Activated carbon is used as an adsorbent for the removal of organic compounds. It is used in one of the following forms, powdered and granular. Due to the high cost of activated carbon, it is normally utilized for polishing after biological treatment. With an optimum dose and sufficient contact time, a considerable decrease in COD and BOD concentration can be achieved by this method. In the powdered form, the carbon is meant for single use and it loses its adsorption capacity and therefore cannot be reactivated. The mixed liquor must then be treated to remove the PAC, by subsequent processes, such as coagulation, flocculation, or filtration. In the granular form, the carbon can be used again but must be removed which requires specialized equipment (IPCC, 2007). Biological Treatment Processes The treatment process is comprised of growing and reproducing microorganisms in a controlled environment to stabilize organic matter. There are two forms of growth process attached and suspended. In suspended growth treatment systems, microorganisms are maintained in suspension within the wastewater whereas in the attached growth process, the biomass grows and is retained on a medium. Attached Growth Processes Percolating filters Rotating biological Contactors (RBC) Suspended Growth Processes Aerated lagoons Activated Sludge Process (ASP) Sequencing Batch Reactor (SBR) Combined treatment with domestic wastewater (co treatment) Percolating Filters It is an aerobic biological treatment system. Wastewater flows over a fixed and inert medium to which biofilms are attached and trickles down under gravity. The medium may be made up of different materials such as plastics and gravels and the depth of the filter is normally 2-4 m. The effluent is passed through a clarifier to remove biological solids. The percolating filter has many disadvantages concerning the treatment of landfill leachate. The system is efficient mostly for the treatment of low strength leachate. A recurrent problem is the clogging of the filter media and vulnerability to shock-term load (IPCC, 2007). Rotating Biological Contactors The process consists of large diameter steel or corrugated plastic media centered around a horizontal shaft, usually placed in a concrete tank. The media is slowly rotated (mechanical or air drive). At any given time during the rotation, about 40% of the media surface area is in the wastewater. Organisms in the wastewater are attached and, multiply on the rotating media until they form a thin layer of biomass. RBC is most effective for treating methanogenic than acetogenic leachates and for concentrations of ammoniacal-N below 500mg/l. The rotating biological contactor may have operational problems, since high concentrations of degradable COD can result in excessive sludge growth, and clogging of interstices within rotors (IPCC, 2007). Aerated Lagoons Aerated lagoons are operated by a combination of aerobic and anaerobic processes. The lower part of the lagoon converts the settled solids and sludge into carbon and methane by the action of anaerobic decomposition. The upper part is usually aerated, surface aeration or by algae present, to oxidize compounds from the anaerobic zone. Effluent is withdrawn from the upper zone, generally over an overflow arrangement. For discharge into surface waters, a secondary settlement lagoon or reed bed filtration system is needed for wastewater polishing. The constraints of the system are as such it requires large space and is quite sensitive to temperature changes. There is the possibility of odurs emanating from the lagoon. The main concern is the inability to provide consistent and reliable design in order to meet the discharge limits. Activated Sludge Process It is the most widely used aerobic biological process for treatment of domestic wastewater. It operates on the basis of a continuous inflow of wastewater. The latter is completely mixed and aerated for certain period of time, giving rise to mixed liquor. For nitrification to occur the sludge age must be greater than 8 days, so that the nitrifying bacteria can grow sufficiently large in numbers to exert an oxygen demand. The mixed liquor is allowed to settle in the clarifier and the biomass is returned to the aeration tank. The clarified effluent is decanted for disposal or tertiary treatment. The ASP is a continuous process and leachate cannot be treated directly, it requires dilution due to ammonia toxicity. Sequencing Batch Reactor The reactor is a slight modification of the ASP. It operates on a fill-and-draw basis using the suspended growth process. The SBR utilizes a single tank which accommodates aerobic biological treatment, flow equalization, settlement of solids, effluent clarification and decanting. Thus, it is usually described as operating in time rather than space when compared to conventional ASP. The reactor consists and operates under the following cycles: Fill: During the fill operation, volume and substrate (raw wastewater or primary effluent) are added to the reactor. The fill process typically allows the liquid level in the reactor to rise from 75% of capacity (at the end of idle period) to 100%. During fill, the reactor may be mixed only or mixed and aerated to promote biological reactions with the effluent wastewater. React: During the react period, the biomass consumes the substrate under controlled environmental conditions. Settle: Solids are allowed to separate from the liquid under quiescent conditions, resulting in a clarified supernatant that can be discharged as effluent. Decant: Clarified effluent is removed during the decant period. Many types of decanting mechanisms can be used, with the most popular being floating or adjustable weirs. Idle: An idle period is used in a multitank system to provide time for one reactor to complete its fill phase before switching to another unit. Because idle phase is not a necessary phase, it is sometimes omitted. Advantages of the system It requires small space as a common tank is used for the various unit processes. Flexibility in operating the reactor. The reaction time can be controlled and settling can be achieved under quiescent conditions. There the elimination of the return sludge pumping when compared to the ASP. Disadvantages of the system A higher level of sophistication is required (compared to conventional systems), especially for larger systems, of timing units and controls. Potential of discharging floating or settled sludge during the draw or decant phase with some SBR configurations. Combined Treatment with Domestic Wastewater It is a combined method for treating domestic wastewater and landfill leachate. Both wastewater and leachate can be treated at suitable mixing ratios (Aktas, 2001). Domestic wastewater can provide phosphate while leachate can provide nitrogen based nutrients, thus compensating for nutrients deficiency. Hence, nutrients need not to be supplied. Leachates from older landfills have a lower BOD/COD value and a smaller biodegradable organic fraction. There may not be sufficient COD to support denitrification of nitrate, a supplementary source of organic carbon is required to ensure adequate denitrification. Synthetic chemicals, such as methanol or acetic acid, are effective but quite expensive. It is necessary to find an alternative cost effective source of easily biodegradable carbon (Zhang, 2005). The mixing ratios are determined or else there will be nitrification inhibition by the presence of excess free ammonia. Case studies for biological treatment of landfill leachate The Buckden Landfill Site has been operational since 1994 and has been successful in treating landfill leachate for more than 10 years. The landfill site uses twin sequencing batch reactors, each designed for treating up to 100 m3/day. The effluent is then treated by means of reed bed and an ozonation plant for wastewater polishing and removal of pesticides. The plant has a design loading rate of 0.02 0.040 kg N/kg MLVSS. The plant has been successful in removing ammonia nitrogen from 331 mg/L to 0.27 mg/L. Only the COD value has not met the discharge limits ( The main running costs are due to electricity for aeration and for ozonation. There is also the use of sodium hydroxide for automatic pH control, and of phosphoric acid for provision of phosphorus as a nutrient, which are relatively small costs. Another case is a South-African landfill which receives up to 2000 tonnes of MSW each day. Up to 80 m3/day of leachate are generated, which have to be treated to very high standards. The treatment system is made up of a SBR with final polishing through a reed bed planted with Phragmites. The SBR is highly efficient for ammoniacal nitrogen removal from over 1200 mg/l to less than 1.0 mg/l. COD values are reduced by 60% from raw leachate values of over 2000 mg/l (Robinson et al., 2005). CHAPTER 4 MATERIALS AND METHODS 4.1. Overview This chapter deals with the methodology adopted and is comprised of the following phases: Sampling Sample preservation Wastewater characterization Leachate Wastewater from SMTP Sludge Biological treatment of landfill leachate using a SBR Co-treatment of landfill leachate with wastewater from SMTP Testing Results and analysis Conclusions Sampling Sampling is done to represent a certain population, in this case wastewater, on which tests are performed and the results symbolize the wastewater characteristics. This can be achieved by two methods: composite sampling and grab sampling. A composite sample consists of collecting samples at regular interval in time. This will be representative of the average wastewater characteristics. A grab sample is based upon obtaining a distinct sample regardless to its flow or time of the day. If the wastewater quality is not highly variable, the results obtained from grab sampling will tend to corroborate composite ones. Both methods are used and for this project the grab sampling technique was adopted. Sample Preservation Soon after the samples were collected, they were tested and if not possible, they were preserved. The latter is crucial step as most of the wastewater constituents have to be kept as are in their original state. They were incubated at 4 ° C and when necessary pH control was done by adding sulphuric acid. Subsequently, this will stop all the biological activities. Wastewater Characterization The next step after sampling is characterization, i.e. determining the level of constituents present in the wastewater. As a fact of that, the treatment method is selected and applied to the polluting material. Each time, when new samples were obtained, they were characterized in compliance with Standard Methods of Testing. For the project, characterization has to be done for these materials; Leachate The leachates were delivered at the UOM Public Health Laboratory, on the 23rd October 2007 and 9th January 2008, and were characterized for the main polluting parameters. Then the sample was preserved till the treatment starts. Domestic Wastewater The domestic wastewater was collected at SMTP. The sample was collected from the primary clarifier after degriting has been done on the following dates: 26th February and 3rd March 27, 2008. The samples were immediately characterized and then used. Sludge For nitrification to take place there should be microorganisms feeding on the organic matter, but leachate does not contain any. Therefore, the returned sludge from SMTP was collected and brought to the UOM Public Health Laboratory. The sludge was allowed to settle and the supernatant was discarded, the residual left was used for testing. As a result of that the sludge concentration was increased and smaller amount is required for biological treatment. A TSS was carried out and the value obtained was used for calculations. The sludge was also studied under the microscope determining the microorganisms present and their conditions. Biological Treatment of Landfill Leachate using a SBR The first option for treating leachate was the biological treatment by making use of a SBR. It was made up of the following phases: fill, react, settle and decant. The reactor consisted of sludge, water and leachate with varying composition. Their volumes were calculated such that the ammonia nitrogen concentration is about 50 mg/L in the reactor. The latter was aerated for a period of 24 hours. The main polluting parameters were monitored and accentuating upon the level of ammonia nitrogen and nitrate nitrogen. The system was run for a number of cycles and then denitrification phase was operated. Experimental Procedure A reactor of capacity 20 L was considered with an MLSS concentration of 4000 mg/l. The dissolved oxygen concentration had to be greater than 2 mg/l and this was achieved by the means of air diffusers. The diffusers provided the mixing within the reactor. Immediately after the setting out of the reactor, a grab sample was collected and was tested. These values were set as baseline. After 24 hours of aeration, another sample was collected from the reactor and tests were performed. The critical parameter i.e. ammonia nitrogen was observed and if, the value is not within the discharge limits then it aerated till the expected result is obtained. The biomass required nutrients which provided in the form of Potassium Hydrogen Phosphate. In order for the treatment to take place, we had to cater for alkalinity and this was achieved by the addition of concentrated sodium hydroxide. Thus the nitrification process was being monitored until no further treatment. A total of 3 sequential batch reactors were operated. After the operation of the third reactor, the denitrification phase was initiated. All the air diffusers were switched off and acetic acid was added to the reactor. The dissolved oxygen concentration was monitored till it reached the zero value and the nitrate nitrogen concentration was measured. Co-treatment of Landfill Leachate with Wastewater from SMTP The other alternative is a combined method, treating domestic wastewater and leachate together. The treatment is biological in nature using a SBR with phases; fill, react, settle and decant. The treating system consisted of aerating the SBR, composed of sludge, domestic wastewater and leachate, for a period of 24 hours. The volume of leachate was gradually increased until no further treatment was observed. The main parameters were monitored, laying emphasis on the nitrification process. The values were recorded and analyzed. Experimental Procedure Small reactors of capacity 5 L each were considered with an MLSS concentration of 1500 mg/l. The first SBR was made up of 100% DWW and sludge only, the second one 95% DWW, 5% leachate and sludge, the third one 90% DWW, 10% leachate and sludge and so on. An example is being shown below. The dissolved oxygen concentration was kept greater than 2 mg/l by the use of air diffusers which also provided the mixing within the reactor. Immediately after the setting out of the reactor, a grab sample was collected and was tested. These values were set as baseline. After 24 hours of aeration, another sample was collected from the reactor and tests were performed.