Advertising: Information or Manipulation Essay

Advertising, also known as a part of the marketing process, has a rich background. When we talk about marketing the first things that come to our mind are high profit, goods and services and of course consumers. Advertising’s role should only exist in order to help society by real information about products and services. Moreover, it helps consumers decide what to purchase according their actual needs. Advertisements are located everywhere and no one can avoid seeing them. Thus, every individual in exposed to seeing at least one advertisement. Advertising is a form of mass communication with the public. It is a form of communication that typically attempts to persuade the potential customers to purchase or consume more of a particular brand of product/services. We could separate advertising in two categories. Giving information through advertising about a product is the first category that is innocent when facing the costumers. The second category has a manipulative effect on people. Thus, People exposed to specific advertisements are led to buy goods and services or do things that don’t actually want to do. And in order to attract audiences, some advertisers use different extreme technique that does more damage on the consumer’s life then with helping him. Therefore, we can say that advertising is based on manipulation and thus should be limited because it harmful. To start with, advertising reaches the mind of people and is dangerous when it is not real especially on children and youth. By unreal advertising we mean a shallow advertising that focuses on the desire and wants of people so the firms producing this product achieves sales and high profits. Young children are unable to understand advertising messages and the information given by these advertisements, therefore, children may consider these advertisements as the truth and the real world thus it will affect their behavior. According to the Washington post and their researches, â€Å"Federal regulators should restrict television advertising aimed at children 8 and younger because research shows youngsters lack the skills to question a commercial’s claims as anything but fact, the American Psychological Association said yesterday†. (Washington post article). Moreover, children will be affected by cartoons, kids’ shows†¦ Thus, manipulation is being forced on children by using the popular faces in cartoons like Hannah Montana, Dora†¦ For instance, during my childhood, there was a chocolate commercial for Disney (picture of the product) and the same chocolate bar was next to it. The price range was very apart since the chocolate by Disney was a brand name. And as a Disney fan I cried and begged for the chocolate bar that was by Disney. Thus, we can see here that manipulation in advertising is being implemented through the mind of children and is affecting their behavior.

Evolution of the Immune System

John Frelinger Dr. Travis Organic Evolution 30 April 2012 Evolution of the Immune System Animals are constantly bombarded by an immensely varied array of disease causing pathogens including bacteria, fungi, viruses and other parasites. The number of microbes living in the human body outnumber the actual human cells by a factor of 10, and for every single species of animal and plant on Earth, there are viruses that infect them. With the unrelenting threat of disease-causing pathogens all around us, and even within us, how can the constantly vulnerable organisms defend themselves?Evolution has provided an answer to this problem—the immune system. The immune system is a vastly complex orchestra of cells working together to help eliminate potentially harmful pathogens from the body. Some form of host defense is found in every multicellular organism, however there are myriad variations in the immune systems of different organisms. Vertebrates have evolved an acquired immune respons e, in which a specific immune system is activated to clear an infection that is initially controlled by a non-specific (innate) immune response.This highly adaptable system is important to the survival of vertebrate species. Surprisingly, however, 90% of animals (invertebrates) do not have this kind of response. Despite lacking a seemingly critical adaptation, invertebrates continue to survive and reproduce. Why does it appear necessary for vertebrates to have an acquired response in order to survive, but the more numerous invertebrate species do not? Research indicates that there is an evolutionary lineage of the immune system that stems from the split of invertebrates and vertebrates.Innate immunity, which is found in all animals, is assumed to be at the beginning of this evolutionary tree. After the diversification of species (vertebrates branching from invertebrates), mechanisms of immunity also diverged. In this paper I will first discuss the function of the innate immune syste m because of its older evolutionary history, followed by the adaptive immune response that evolved later in vertebrate lineages. I will then conclude by placing the development of the innate and adaptive immune system in an evolutionary context.Innate immunity is the first line of defense for an organism and is made up of elements that protect the organism from pathogens. Anatomical aspects such as skin act as an impermeable barrier to infectious pathogens. Chemical and biological factors, including anti-microbial peptides like defensins, are also used to inhibit bacterial growth and prevent colonization. Another immunological factor of the innate immune system are phagocytic cells (macrophages), which are cells that engulf and eliminate foreign pathogens.These cells operate using a variety of different and generalized receptors that recognize a broad range of molecular patterns expressed by pathogens that initiate phagocytosis. One such family of receptors, known as Toll-like Recep tors, recognizes common pathogen elements such as bacterial wall components or viral DNA sequences. This component is found in virtually every multicellular organism, ranging from sponges to humans (Muller and Muller 2003). Plants also express proteins that are very similar to toll-like receptors, indicating that this aspect of the innate immune system predates the divergence of plants and animals.The innate immune system is so valuable to an organism’s survival because it is always present and in many instances can prevent pathogen entry or replication. This, in turn, prevents a harmful infection from ever occurring inside the host. Although invertebrates do not have the acquired immune response, recent research has shown that their innate response is more complex than previously thought. Insects can activate their immune systems to remain in a higher state in order to prepare for a pathogen invasion.During bedbug mating, females are frequently injured in the process because males will stab a female to inject his sperm, infecting her with bacteria and exposing her to other potential infections. In response, females have evolved ways to enhance their immune system prior to mating in anticipation of pathogen invasion (Morrow and Arnqvist 2003). Bumblebees are capable of maintaining a heightened immune system in response to a prior pathogen invasion to aid in the prevention of future infections. Immunity such as this has been shown to pass down vertically to offspring, therefore increasing their fitness (Tyler et al. 006). Slugs have also evolved an interesting alternative response in the form of increased mutation rates of certain immune cell receptors, which allows their immune system to adapt to many foreign elements (Litman and Cooper 2007). While it is inherently different from the acquired immune response, this sensitive management of immune function was previously thought to be reserved as a characteristic of vertebrates and the adaptive immune res ponse. As vertebrates began to diverge and evolve from invertebrates, so too did the immune system.The new adaptive branch of the immune system originally conferred a new selective advantage for vertebrates because of its specificity and immense flexibility in recognizing new pathogens. The clonal selection theory, in which each lymphocyte clonally expresses a specific antigen receptor, can help explain how the immune system can express an extremely wide range of potential receptors capable of recognizing new pathogens. Lymphocytes are undifferentiated cells that ultimately become B-cells (Bone Marrow) or T-cells (Thymus) depending on where they migrate.B-cells possess a uniquely structured immunoglobulin molecule (antibodies exposed on outer surface) that recognizes and binds to a specific molecular counterpart. When a foreign antigen is bound to the antibody, it stimulates the replication of that specific B-cell with the aid of Helper T-cells, which enhance B-cell maturation. This process results in the clonal expansion of cells that recognize the original antigen and subsequent production of antibodies that help in the eradication of the pathogen. An important point of this process is that the pathogens select which lymphocytes expand.It also results in memory B-cells and T-cells that constitute a persistent immune memory for a particular antigen. This expanded pool of memory cells is activated upon a second exposure to the same pathogen, resulting in a much more rapid immune response to clear infection. Other types of T-cells are also produced during this process. For example, cytotoxic T-cells target and kill virally infected cells, while suppressor or regulatory T-cells are activated when the infectious pathogens are eliminated and signal the immune system to subside.Cells such as these also experience selective pressures–ones that react to self-tissue (and harm the host) would be selected against, while those that recognize pathogens would surviv e and replicate. The clonal selection theory addresses many aspects of vertebrate immunity, however, it does not explain all of the mysteries behind the variety of antibody generation. The sheer number of antibodies that can be produced and the finding that the acquired immune response can generate antibodies to manmade molecules that are not present in nature led scientists to explore how such diversity is generated.Research done by Susumu Tonegawa in the 1970’s indicated that B-cells have the ability to produce a huge number of antibodies due to a gene rearrangement process. B cells originally have many sets of gene segments (Variable, Diverse, and Joining) and over the course of its maturation reduce these segments to one of each type for the production of the antibody heavy chain. A similar process of gene rearrangement is involved for the production of the antibody light chain. The light chain and heavy chain proteins then assemble to form the complete antibody molecule that can specifically bind to an antigen.Two genes that are critical for this process to work are RAG1 and RAG2. These genes are known as recombination-activating genes and distinguish the vertebrate immune system from other lineages. These genes are critical to the process because they act as the excision and joining molecules that cut and knit back together the individual VDJ segments that make up the antibody. This results in the huge potential of diverse antibodies that can be produced—hundreds of millions of possible antibody types generated from a much smaller number of gene segments that can react with virtually any antigen.This sophisticated process may have originally been introduced by a mobile genetic element known as transposons. These transposable elements have the ability to excise themselves from one DNA sequence and incorporate themselves into another, very similar to the RAG1 and RAG2 gene functions. After the divergence of jawed and jawless vertebrates, a vi ral infection of the jawed lineage’s gametes may have introduced a transposon into their genome. (Thompson 1995). This may have provided the raw materials necessary to facilitate the development of adaptive immunity.The acquired response appears to have evolved from a single lineage because all vertebrates (excluding jawless fish) retain this RAG-mediated gene rearrangement system. The specificity of this kind of response may have been selected for because of its ability to recognize a diverse number of pathogens, but also because it could conserve more energy resources compared to the generalized defense of the innate response. The adaptive immune response is structured in such a way that it can respond to an almost infinite number of pathogens, while utilizing a relatively limited number of genes.Figure 1 illustrates a potential phylogeny based on some immune system adaptations previously discussed. Figure 1 (Reproduced from Litman and Cooper 2007). Although the vertebrate immune system is extremely adaptable to many potential threats, it is far from perfect. Epidemics such as the Bubonic Plague or the 1918 influenza killed millions of people. Similarly, when the Spanish colonized the New World, they also introduced pathogens that were devastating to the indigenous people.One of the major limitations of the acquired immune response is that it takes a relatively long time to respond after the initial exposure in order to be effective. This time is required because the lymphocytes must clonally expand before a pathogen can be eliminated. For example, in the case of the Native Americans, when they were exposed to the new pathogens, the infections spread to a portion of the population that was large enough to leave them unable to forage for food or to tend to the sick. As a result, it nearly wiped out the entire civilization.This limitation is significant as illustrated by these and many other historical epidemics. These difficulties have led scientists t o think more fully about the effectiveness of the vertebrate immune system. If the immune system has the potential to combat virtually any conceivable threat, why then can’t it always eliminate any potentially harmful pathogen? We also look to immune hypersensitivity and autoimmunity as potential drawbacks of the immune system, indicating further imperfections of the adaptation. When the immune system mistakenly targets self-tissue, it results in serious consequences for the organism.Concepts in evolutionary biology might help address these issues. In this context the immune system does not have to be inherently perfect by design because only some individuals of a population need to survive and reproduce for that lineage to continue. The variation introduced by the immune system generates the diversity necessary for a population to adapt to changing environmental pressures. As others have suggested, a zebra doesn’t have to outrun the lion, just the slowest member of th e herd (Hedrick 2004).The immune system is subjected to the same constraints as other characteristics in regards to natural selection. In this case even if a trait is not optimal, but helps the organism survive and reproduce, it will be selected for, regardless of any deleterious effects experienced post-reproduction. Many, but not all immunologists, believe the development of the adaptive immune system with gene rearrangement was a critical advance. It has been proposed that the development of the adaptive immune system was the â€Å"Big Bang† for the evolution of immune system (Travis 2009).This development might have also enabled the rapid expansion of vertebrates. Moreover, the idea that the adaptive immune system can generate receptors for molecules that are not yet present, makes it extremely flexible and has been called â€Å"forward thinking† (Travis 2009). Thus, while the immune system does not anticipate every change in organisms it is ready for them by const ructing a large repertoire of antigen specific receptors, which confers a big selective advantage. Others have suggested the adaptive immune system conserves resources, and thus is better than the innate system.In contrast, as noted earlier, invertebrates lack a fully functional adaptive immune system and are very successful. Moreover, others have argued that even if the immune system was an advantage, it was only temporary and short lived (Hedrick 2004). Another relevant issue deals with the concept of parasite and host co-evolution. This constant struggle is exemplified by a quote from Lewis Carroll’s â€Å"Through the Looking Glass†, â€Å"it takes all the running you can do, to keep in the same place†. This concept, originally introduced by Leigh Van Valen, has been termed the Red Queen hypothesis.According to this hypothesis, an improvement in fitness for one species will lead to a selective advantage for that species. However, since species are often coevo lving with one another, improvement in one species implies that it gains a competitive advantage over the other species, and thus has the potential to outcompete for shared resources. This means that fitness increase in one evolutionary system will tend to lead to fitness decrease in another system. The only way that a competing species can maintain its relative fitness is to improve on its own design.Although this theory was used to help explain the extinction of species and the evolution of sexual reproduction, it has been applied to many aspects of predator prey relationships including the development of the immune system. Because animals are constantly attacked by fast-adapting parasites, the host immune system cannot possibly gain an advantage over them. The evolution of the immune system is caused by the small advantages conferred as a result of variation in the recognition of pathogens.As suggested by Steven Hedrick, â€Å"by selecting for more elusive parasites, the immune system is ultimately the cause of its own necessity† (Hedrick 2004). Thus paradoxically, the immune system, since it places a strong selective pressure on pathogens and parasites, ultimately has become essential for vertebrates to survive. By placing selective pressure on parasites that can evolve much more rapidly than animals (due to their higher reproductive/mutation rate), it results in parasites that are increasingly more effective at infecting hosts of that species.In terms of the immune system, one strategy that parasites have developed is a means of altering their own antigens to become unrecognizable. In this way they escape the adaptive immune system by altering their structure. For example, trypanosomes can switch the major target antigen for antibodies, which they use as a strategy to extend the amount of time they reside in the host. This results in a more contagious host that will increase the spread of pathogens to new hosts (Stockdale et al. 2008).Similarly, be cause the HIV polymerase is very error prone with no proof reading mechanism, many mutations arise in the HIV proteins during its infection. While the adaptive immune system can make neutralizing antibodies, new variants arise that can no longer be recognized by the antibodies. These new variants have a selective advantage and escape, and thus the adaptive immune system  is always lagging behind. In terms of the host immune response, there is also an extremely high level  of polymorphism of major histocompatibility genes, which enable the population to respond to a wider array of antigens using T-cells.The benefit of this heterozygosity is that it allows the individual to respond to a wider variety of antigens. Moreover this diversity helps ensure that even though some individuals may perish, the particular pathogen will not be able to eliminate the entire population. Some infectious agents have even taken it a step further and evolved ways to utilize the host immune system to i ncrease their own fitness. For example, infections that result in pus filled cysts can be used to carry parasitic progeny and spread to new hosts when they burst.Even though this may help the host clear an infection, the pathogen can use this to increase its own fitness and infect more individuals. The Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) utilizes the host immune system by initially infecting macrophages, and subsequently T-cells, which the virus uses as a reservoir for reproduction and as a means to spread to many different tissues in the body (Orenstein 2001). It also serves the virus to target immune cells for infection because crippling the host immune response akes it easier for the virus to spread throughout the body and eventually to new hosts (due to the higher viral load). In this light, it is possible that invertebrates did not evolve the adaptive immune response because they may have never needed it. By lacking the ability to develop a â€Å"memory† for a particular pathogen, those pathogens did not evolve anti-immune mechanisms to counter the host immune response. An immune memory could lead to more devious pathogens and result in a more harmful infection in the future.This could have been a better strategy for invertebrates as it may have prevented the co-evolution of more virulent pathogens (Hedrick 2004). The immune system has a long evolutionary history in multicellular organisms. The innate immune system is a critical adaptation that helped these organisms survive the onslaught of parasites and pathogens. Vertebrates possess an adaptive immune response that allowed for the recognition of an almost infinite number of pathogenic antigens, however, it appears to have become a one-way road with the coevolution of pathogens.Once this adaptive system appeared in the vertebrate lineage, there was no going back. Because of the immense flexibility of the adaptive immune response, it places huge selective pressures on pathogens to constantly evolve new mechanisms of infecting hosts. Thus in the context of evolution, even with the incredible versatility of the adaptive immune system, it is likely there can not be an ultimate solution to infection by parasites only a new, perhaps unstable, equilibrium. Works Cited Hedrick, S. (2004). The Acquired Immune System: A Vantage from Beneath.Immunity 21, 607-615. Litman, G. and Cooper, M. (2007). Why Study the Evolution of Immunity? Nature Immunology 8, 547-548. Morrow, E. H. , and Arnqvist, G. (2003). Costly traumatic insemination and a female counter-adaptation in bed bugs. Proceedings of the Royal SocietyB: Biological Sciences. 270: 2377–2381 Muller, W. and Muller, I. (2003). Origin of the Metazoan Immune System: Identification of the Molecules and Their Functions in Sponge. Integrative and Comparative Biology 43, 281-292. Orenstein, J. (2001). The Macrophage in HIV Infection.Immunobiol. 204, 598- 602. Stockdale, C. , Swiderski, M. , Barry D. , and Richard McCulloch (2008). A ntigenic Variation in Trypanosoma brucei: Joining the DOTs. PLoS Biol 6. Thompson, C. B. (1995). New insights into V(D)J recombination and its role in the evolution of the immune system. Immunity 3, 531–539. Travis, John. (2009). â€Å"On the Origin of the Immune System†. Sciencemag Vol. 329. Tyler, E. , Adams, S. , and Mallon, E. (2006), An Immune Response in the Bumblebee,Bombus terrestris leads to increased food consumption. BMC Physiology 6.

Discuss 'residential satisfaction' Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Discuss 'residential satisfaction' - Essay Example With this backdrop, people seek to stay in houses which give them complete residential satisfaction by way of good neighbourly relations, peaceful surroundings, serene environment, suitable facilities and good administration of residential complexes. Depending on individual tastes and preferences, aspirations and satisfaction levels change but most house owners or tenants prefer to seek better houses in order to get full residential satisfaction in all respects whenever their aspirations are not met with in their existing homes. As everyone commonly understands, satisfaction is a state of happiness derived through fulfilment of an objective. It can be more clearly described as a sort of contentment one gains by fulfilling a desire, need or hope. Residential satisfaction is therefore a certain state of happiness gained by a person in all respects in relation to his / her residence, own or rented. Going by common knowledge, people would generally tend to continue to reside in houses where full satisfaction is sustained in relation to their neighbours, environment, facilities available and maintenance of the premises. When one runs out of residential satisfaction with regard to any of these issues, he or she may opt to move out of it in search of better residential satisfaction. In such a case, either the house is sold off or vacated by the occupant. Golledge and Stimson (1996: 473) quite appropriately describe ‘residential satisfaction’ as the meeting point of the residential achievement with the residential aspiration. Aspirations are not similar and most of the times, they differ depending on the different tastes of people. This is especially so with regard to a dwelling unit. Because of the different perceptions of different people on how to achieve residential satisfaction, all house owners would not display the same level of satisfaction from a single residential environment (Galster, 1987: 93). One therefore has to understand

The History and Journey of the Navajo Indian Tribe Essay

The History and Journey of the Navajo Indian Tribe - Essay Example There is an overwhelming source of works written, researched, viewed by people from all walks of life on the Navajo Indian Tribe. The enormity of information and data would already reveal the abundance of valuable wealth this tribe have shared to the history and culture of the American people. Who exactly are the Navajos? How come so many historians, anthropologists and scholars have been interested to know them and to be part of their cultural heritage? Where have they originated? What were their challenges and successes as a people? How are they now? The objectives of this essay are briefly summarized as follows: 1.To gain knowledge on the Navajo Indian Tribe: their attributes and characteristics, way of life, culture, livelihood and religious practices. 2.To explore their history and journey with them through time. 3.To determine their contribution to the human race. It is the objective of this essay to present their historical path and determine their legacy to the future. II. THE NAVAJO INDIANS The Navajo Indians are the largest tribe of North America. According to articles on the Navajo People found in Wikipedia, â€Å"the name ‘NAVAJO’ comes from the late 18th century via the Spanish (Apaches de) Navajo, Apaches of Navajo, which was derived from the Tewa navahe, ‘fields adjoining a ravine’†. It is interesting to note that the Navajo call themselves DINE, which means, â€Å"the people†. They now occupy a large area of cultivated land, named NAVAJO, in what is now Arizona and New Mexico.

The Value of Pair and Group Work for Second Language Learning Essay

The Value of Pair and Group Work for Second Language Learning - Essay Example But some teachers are not yet ready to change and accept change. Besides, they are unconvinced about the value of using pair and group work in the classroom environment. From another angle of view, the mindset of student community towards pedagogical innovation deeply influences its effectiveness in the classroom environment. This view has been supported in the work of Hinkel (2005, P. 141). The value of pair and group work in the classroom environment is that it helps learners gets enough opportunity to practice the language. For instance, pair and group work help the learners to have enough time for oral practice. Besides, less confident learners get exposure to put newly acquired language skills into practice. Pair and group work in classroom environment leads to less dependence on a teacher, helping and learning enhances language acquisition. Pair and group work change the traditional role of the individual teacher in the classroom environment. Group work is helpful for the learners to share their ideas with their peers. In addition, learning experience in classroom environment under the supervision of teacher enhances the learning process. Dividing the class into different groups consist of gifted, fast learners, average students and below average students is helpful for the student community to develop their language skills. Besides, pair and group work helps the teacher to provide individual attention to each and every student. Grouping the students by considering their ability or language proficiency is not democratic but it leads to the failure of classroom instruction on and tasks formulated by the teacher. This view has been supported in the work of Genesee (1994, p.186). The traditional mode of classroom instruction based on the teacher is not democratic. In this situation, the teacher is lecturing and the students are mere listeners.

Briefly outline the court system in England and Wales, and in Essay

Briefly outline the court system in England and Wales, and in particular the role of the Crown Court - Essay Example The Courts of England and wales are made up of the following different courts namely, the magistrate’s courts, the country courts, the Crown court, the High Court of justice, the Court of Appeal and the Supreme Court which work in line with the European court of Justice and the European Court of Human Rights (Clarissa, 2004). These courts are subdivided in to three main divisions namely the senior courts, the subordinate Courts and the special courts. The senior courts include the Supreme Court, the Court of Appeal, and the Crown Court. The Subordinate courts include the magistrates’ court and the county courts while the special courts and tribunals include the ecclesiastical courts and the coroners’courts. These are smaller specialized courts dealing with various matters. The tribunals in England and Wales include the Employments Tribunal, Employment Appeals Tribunal and the first tier and Upper tribunals. The Employment tribunal and the Employment Appeal Tribunal are established to hear industrial disputes. The First-Tier and Upper tribunals have taken up most of the roles and functions that have traditionally been conducted by various tribunals. Other special courts are the Coroner court and the ecclesiastical courts which date back to over 1000 years ago (Richard, Amanda &Amanda, 2011). The coroner’s courts deal with causes of death for individuals who pass away in suspicious circumstances or in foreign countries. The Ecclesiastical courts are based on the Church of England’s legal system, which is the official state church. The court has jurisdiction over marriage and divorce matters, defamation and testamentary matters. The jurisdiction of the court has however narrowed down to the clergy men of the Church of England. These are subordinate local courts established to hear mainly criminal cases and some civil matters at the first instance. These courts are staffed by

Subtle Issues in Revenue Recognition Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Subtle Issues in Revenue Recognition - Essay Example This is not to say that management should ignore social responsibility such as protecting consumers, paying fair wages, maintaining fair hiring practices and safe working conditions, supporting education and becoming actively involved in environmental issues. Stakeholders other than stockholders can no longer be enrolled. These stakeholders include creditors, employees, customers, suppliers, communities in which a company operates and others. The impact of decisions must be recognized. The Enron controversy resulted to different political and economic changes which affected both government and private agencies. Enron has developed into becoming a part of America’s top ten companies in the span of nearly two decades. Their sudden rise to power seemed impossible to many industries in the financial world. However, the scam which brought upon Enron success was discovered. Deception was the name of the game for Enron. They concealed their controversial and suspicious dealings and transaction with their growing debt so that they appear debt-free and admirable to stockholders and the public. At last, every lie and cover up was made known to many when the company suddenly and unexpectedly filed for Chapter 11 Bankruptcy. That was their last resort. Not even company partnerships and affiliations could save the money and the glory of Enron. When the news of bankruptcy of Enron was revealed, the reasons behind Enron’s downfall remained unclear and uncertain. There were mixed reactions among businessmen, politicians, stockholders, and others. Most of them were enraged while some felt concerned. There were those who were not surprised that the discrepancies with the financial statements could actually happen. It was as if it was the common habit among those who wish to decrease their debt. Questions such as the reason behind the downfall as well as the possible ways and means for preventing bankruptcy rose among the interested public.